Listening skill English today

The Learning English Video Project

2010-07-13T13:07:00.000-07:00

	The Internet is such a splendid tool for communicating with people and finding out how people are doing things differently all over the world. I want The Learning English Video Project to really be a part of that.
	Daniel Emmerson, Director

The Films

Insights from China (18 minutes)
Watch | Comments
"Never say die."
Based in the busy, cosmopolitan city of Shanghai, Daniel Emmerson's latest film Insights from China takes us inside the worlds of English language learning and teaching and the airline industry in China. "Insights from China" focuses largely on the staff and management of a Chinese airline company that has recently committed to learning English. Spring Airlines is the first low-cost airline in China. Determined to become a successful international airline, the company has insisted that all of its workers learn to speak fluent English. The CEO of Spring Airlines, Zhang Xiuzhi, has set the bar high. She began learning English "from scratch" 18 months prior to her interview for this film. Like the majority of other language learners, the main stumbling block for the CEO is finding enough time to study. Zhang takes English homework to bed at night and even studies in her car.

Nouns that can be Countable and Uncountable

2009-09-06T06:00:00.001-07:00

Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of meaning.

Countable		Uncountable
There are two hairs in my coffee!	hair	I don't have much hair.
There are two lights in our bedroom.	light	Close the curtain. There's too much light!
Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise.	noise	It's difficult to work when there is too much noise.
Have you got a paper to read? (= newspaper)	paper	I want to draw a picture. Have you got some paper?
Our house has seven rooms.	room	Is there room for me to sit here?
We had a great time at the party.	time	Have you got time for a coffee?
Macbeth is one of Shakespeare's greatest works.	work	I have no money. I need work!

Drinks (coffee, water, orange juice) are usually uncountable. But if we are thinking of a cup or a glass, we can say (in a restaurant, for example):

Two teas and one coffee please.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

2009-09-06T05:53:00.000-07:00

English nouns are often described as "countable" or "uncountable".

In this lesson we look at:

Countable Nouns

Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we can count. For example: "pen". We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens. Here are some more countable nouns:

dog, cat, animal, man, person
bottle, box, litre
coin, note, dollar
cup, plate, fork
table, chair, suitcase, bag

Countable nouns can be singular or plural:

My dog is playing.
My dogs are hungry.

We can use the indefinite article a/an with countable nouns:

A dog is an animal.

When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this with it:

I want an orange. (not I want orange.)
Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?)

When a countable noun is plural, we can use it alone:

I like oranges.
Bottles can break.

We can use some and any with countable nouns:

I've got some dollars.
Have you got any pens?

We can use a few and many with countable nouns:

I've got a few dollars.
I haven't got many pens.

"People" is countable. "People" is the plural of "person". We can count people:

There is one person here.
There are three people here.

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide into separate elements. We cannot "count" them. For example, we cannot count "milk". We can count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but we cannot count "milk" itself. Here are some more uncountable nouns:

music, art, love, happiness
advice, information, news
furniture, luggage
rice, sugar, butter, water
electricity, gas, power
money, currency

We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For example:

This news is very important.
Your luggage looks heavy.

We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We cannot say "an information" or "a music". But we can say a something of:

a piece of news
a bottle of water
a grain of rice

We can use some and any with uncountable nouns:

I've got some money.
Have you got any rice?

We can use a little and much with uncountable nouns:

I've got a little money.
I haven't got much rice.

Uncountable nouns are also called "mass nouns".
Here are some more examples of countable and uncountable nouns . When you learn a new word, it's a good idea to learn whether it's countable or uncountable.

Interjections

2009-09-06T05:51:00.000-07:00

Hi! That's an interjection. :-)

Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are extremely common in English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to indicate that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them when you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning.

Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.

The table below shows some interjections with examples.

interjection	meaning	example
ah	expressing pleasure	"Ah, that feels good."
	expressing realization	"Ah, now I understand."
	expressing resignation	"Ah well, it can't be heped."
	expressing surprise	"Ah! I've won!"
alas	expressing grief or pity	"Alas, she's dead now."
dear	expressing pity	"Oh dear! Does it hurt?"
dear	expressing surprise	"Dear me! That's a surprise!"
eh	asking for repetition	"It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."
	expressing enquiry	"What do you think of that, eh?"
	expressing surprise	"Eh! Really?"
	inviting agreement	"Let's go, eh?"
er	expressing hesitation	"Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."
hello, hullo	expressing greeting	"Hello John. How are you today?"
hello, hullo	expressing surprise	"Hello! My car's gone!"
hey	calling attention	"Hey! look at that!"
hey	expressing surprise, joy etc	"Hey! What a good idea!"
hi	expressing greeting	"Hi! What's new?"
hmm	expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement	"Hmm. I'm not so sure."
oh, o	expressing surprise	"Oh! You're here!"
	expressing pain	"Oh! I've got a toothache."
	expressing pleading	"Oh, please say 'yes'!"
ouch	expressing pain	"Ouch! That hurts!"
uh	expressing hesitation	"Uh...I don't know the answer to that."
uh-huh	expressing agreement	"Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."
um, umm	expressing hesitation	"85 divided by 5 is...um...17."
well	expressing surprise	"Well I never!"
well	introducing a remark	"Well, what did he say?"

Subordinating Conjunctions

2009-09-05T05:48:00.000-07:00

The majority of conjunctions are "subordinating conjunctions". Common subordinating conjunctions are:

after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, while

A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause:

Look at this example:

main or independent clause	subordinate or dependent clause
Ram went swimming	although	it was raining.
	subordinating conjunction

A subordinate or dependent clause "depends" on a main or independent clause. It cannot exist alone. Imagine that somebody says to you: "Hello! Although it was raining." What do you understand? Nothing! But a main or independent clause can exist alone. You will understand very well if somebody says to you: "Hello! Ram went swimming."

A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause. It "introduces" a subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause can sometimes come after and sometimes before a main clause. Thus, two structures are possible:

Ram went swimming although it was raining.

Although it was raining, Ram went swimming.

Coordinating Conjunctions

2009-09-05T05:47:00.000-07:00

The short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions":

and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so

A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure:

Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square brackets [ ]:

I like [tea] and [coffee].
[Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.

When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction:

I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:

She is kind so she helps people.

When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:

He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum.
He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.

The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three letters. There's an easy way to remember them - their initials spell:

For

And

Nor

But

Yet

Conjunctions

2009-09-05T05:43:00.000-07:00

A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a sentence.

Here are some example conjunctions:

Coordinating Conjunctions	Subordinating Conjunctions
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so	although, because, since, unless

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.

Form

Conjunctions have three basic forms:

Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although
Compound (often ending with as or that)
for example: provided that, as long as, in order that
Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)
for example: so...that

Function

Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":

Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:
- Jack and Jill went up the hill.
- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.
Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example:
- I went swimming although it was cold.

Position

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.

In this lesson we will look in more detail at:

Should Quiz

2009-09-05T05:33:00.001-07:00

1	You should smoking.
2	What do you think I do?
3	People should that the world has changed.
4	Those children be at school.
5	That motorcyclist be wearing a helmet.
6	You paid €99! It have cost more than €50.
7	If I won the lottery I buy a castle.
8	If I were you I complain.
9	The teacher demanded that John should harder.
10	Get me a drink \| I? Get your own!

Should

2009-09-05T05:31:00.000-07:00

Should is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use should mainly to:

give advice or make recommendations
talk about obligation
talk about probability and expectation
express the conditional mood
replace a subjunctive structure

Structure of Should

subject + should + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

	subject	auxiliary verb	main verb
+	He	should	go.
-	He	should not	go.
-	He	shouldn't	go.
?	Should	he	go?

Notice that:

Should is invariable. There is only one form of should.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

There is no short form for should. The negative should not can be shortened to shouldn't.

The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:
~~You should to go.~~

Use of Should

should: Giving advice, opinions

We often use should when offering advice or opinions (similar to ought to):

EC TIP: People often say "They should..." Usually, the "they" is anonymous and means the government, or the company, or somebody else - but not us!

You should see the new James Bond movie. It's great!
You should try to lose weight.
John should get a haircut.
He shouldn't smoke. And he should stop drinking too.
What should I wear?
They should make that illegal.
There should be a law against that.
People should worry more about global warming.

should: Obligation, duty, correctness

Another use of should (also similar to ought to) is to indicate a kind of obligation, duty or correctness, often when criticizing another person:

You should be wearing your seat belt. (obligation)
I should be at work now. (duty)
You shouldn't have said that to her. (correctness)
He should have been more careful.
Should you be driving so fast?

should: Probability, expectation

We use should to indicate that we think something is probable (we expect it to happen):

Are you ready? The train should be here soon.
$10 is enough. It shouldn't cost more than that.
Let's call Mary. She should have finished work by now.

should: Conditionals

We sometimes use should (instead of would) for the first person singular (I) and first person plural (we) of some conditionals:

If I lost my job I should have no money.
(If he lost his job he would have no money.)
We should be grateful if you could send us your latest catalogue.

This is not a very important distinction. (More about the use of shall/will and should/would.)

should: (If I were you I should...)

We often use the conditional structure "If I were you I should..." to give advice.

If I were you, I should complain to the manager.
If I were you I shouldn't worry about it.
I shouldn't say anything if I were you.

Note that we can omit "If I were you..." and just say:

I should complain to the manager.
I shouldn't worry about it.
I shouldn't say anything.

In these cases, the phrase "I should" really means something like "you should".

should: Pseudo subjunctive

We often use a special verb form called the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody wants to happen, hopes will happen or imagines happening, for example:

The president insists that the prime minister attend the meeting.

However, this is much more common in American English. British English speakers would probably convey the same idea using should:

The president insists that the prime minister should attend the meeting.

Here are some more examples:

Subjunctive typically American English	Using should typically British English
The president is insisting that pollution be reduced.	The president is insisting that pollution should be reduced.
The manager recommended that Mary join the company.	The manager recommended that Mary should join the company.
It is essential that we decide today.	It is essential that we should decide today.
It was necessary that everyone arrive on time.	It was necessary that everyone should arrive on time.

should: Why should..? | How should..?

If we don't understand (or agree with) something, we may use "Why should..?":

Why should it be illegal to commit suicide? It's your life.

"Why should..?" and "How should..?" can also indicate anger or irritation:

"Help me with this." | "Why should I?"
"Where are my keys?" | "How should I know?"

Would Quiz

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1	I knew he would famous one day.
2	He said that help me.
3	I asked him to walk faster but he .
4	As children we would together every day.
5	Nobody knew that one day he be rich.
6	If you asked me say you were crazy.
7	Would you to go?
8	Do you think he'd help? \| I'm sure .
9	He would to be improving.
10	We want to play tennis. I wish stop raining.

Would

2009-09-05T05:11:00.000-07:00

Would is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use would mainly to:

talk about the past
talk about the future in the past
express the conditional mood

We also use would for other functions, such as:

expressing desire, polite requests and questions, opinion or hope, wish and regret...

Structure of Would

subject + would + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

	subject	auxiliary verb	main verb
+	She	would	like	tea.
		'd
-	She	would not	like	whisky.
		wouldn't
?	Would	she	like	coffee?

Notice that:

Would is never conjugated. It is always would or 'd (short form).
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

Be careful! Would and had have the same short form 'd:
He'd finished. (He had finished.)
He'd like coffee. (He would like coffee.)

The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:
~~I would to like coffee.~~

Use of Would

would: Talking about the past

We often use would as a kind of past tense of will or going to:

Even as a boy, he knew that he would succeed in life.
I thought it would rain so I brought my umbrella.

Using would as as a kind of past tense of will or going to is common in reported speech:

She said that she would buy some eggs. ("I will buy some eggs.")
The candidate said that he wouldn't increase taxes. ("I won't increase taxes.")
Why didn't you bring your umbrella? I told you it would rain! ("It's going to rain.")

We often use would not to talk about past refusals:

He wanted a divorce but his wife would not agree.
Yesterday morning, the car wouldn't start.

We sometimes use would (rather like used to) when talking about habitual past behaviour:

Every weekday my father would come home from work at 6pm and watch TV.
Every summer we'd go to the seaside.
Sometimes she'd phone me in the middle of the night.
We would always argue. We could never agree.

would: Future in past

When talking about the past we can use would to express something that has not happened at the time we are talking about:

In London she met the man that she would one day marry.
He left 5 minutes late, unaware that the delay would save his life.

would: Conditionals

We often use would to express the so-called second and third conditionals:

If he lost his job he would have no money.
IfI had won the lotteryI would have bought a car.

Using the same conditional structure, we often use would when giving advice:

I wouldn't eat that if I were you.
If I were in your place I'd refuse.
If you asked me I would say you should go.

Sometimes the condition is "understood" and there does not have to be an "if" clause:

Someone who liked John would probably love John's father. (If someone liked John they would probably love John's father.)
You'd never know it. (for example: If you met him you would never know that he was rich.)
Why don't you invite Mary? I'm sure she'd come.

EC TIP: Although there is always a main verb, sometimes it is understood (not stated) as in:

I'd like to stay. | I wish you would. (would stay)
Do you think he'd come? | I'm sure he would. (would come)
Who would help us? | John would. (would help us)

would: Desire or inclination

I'd love to live here.
Would you like some coffee?
What I'd really like is some tea.

would: Polite requests and questions

Would you open the door, please? (more polite than: Open the door, please.)
Would you go with me? (more polite than: Will you go with me?)
Would you know the answer? (more polite than: Do you know the answer?)
What would the capital of Nigeria be? (more polite than: What is the capital of Nigeria?)

would: Opinion or hope

I would imagine that they'll buy a new one.
I suppose some people would call it torture.
I would have to agree.
I would expect him to come.
Since you ask me I'd say the blue one is best.

would: Wish

I wish you would stay. (I really want you to stay. I hope you will stay.)
They don't like me. I'm sure they wish I'd resign.

EC TIP: Note that all of these uses of would express some kind of distance or remoteness:

remoteness in time (past time)
remoteness of possibility or probability
remoteness between speakers (formality, politeness)

would: Presumption or expectation

That would be Jo calling. I'll answer it.
We saw a police helicopter overhead yesterday morning. | Really? They would have been looking for those bank robbers.

would: Uncertainty

He would seem to be getting better. (less certain than: He seems to be getting better.)
It would appear that I was wrong. (less certain than: It appears that I was wrong.)

would: Derogatory

They would say that, wouldn't they?
John said he didn't steal the money. | Well, he would, wouldn't he?

would that: Regret (poetic/rare) - with clause

This rare, poetic or literary use of would does not have the normal structure:

Would that it were true! (If only it were true! We wish that it were true!)
Would that his mother had lived to see him become president.

Shall versus Will

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People may sometimes tell you that there is no difference between shall and will, or even that today nobody uses shall (except in offers such as "Shall I call a taxi?"). This is not really true. The difference between shall and will is often hidden by the fact that we usually contract them in speaking with 'll. But the difference does exist.

The truth is that there are two conjugations for the verb will:

1st Conjugation (objective, simple statement of fact)
	Person	Verb	Example	Contraction
Singular	I	shall	I shall be in London tomorrow.	I'll
	you	will	You will see a large building on the left.	You'll
	he, she, it	will	He will be wearing blue.	He'll
Plural	we	shall	We shall not be there when you arrive.	We shan't
	you	will	You will find his office on the 7th floor.	You'll
	they	will	They will arrive late.	They'll

2nd Conjugation (subjective, strong assertion, promise or command)
	Person	Verb	Example	Contraction
Singular	I	will	I will do everything possible to help.	I'll
	you	shall	You shall be sorry for this.	You'll
	he, she, it	shall	It shall be done.	It'll
Plural	we	will	We will not interfere.	We won't
	you	shall	You shall do as you're told.	You'll
	they	shall	They shall give one month's notice.	They'll

It is true that this difference is not universally recognized. However, let those who make assertions such as "People in the USA never use 'shall'" peruse a good US English dictionary, or many US legal documents which often contain phrases such as:

Each party shall give one month's notice in writing in the event of termination.

Note that exactly the same rule applies in the case of should and would. It is perfectly normal, and somewhat more elegant, to write, for example:

I should be grateful if you would kindly send me your latest catalogue.

Have to, Must, Must not Quiz

2009-09-05T05:05:00.001-07:00

1	Yesterday I finish my Geography project.
2	She will wait in line like everyone else.
3	All employees on time for work.
4	We forget to take the chicken out of the freezer.
5	If you are under 13 you to get your parents' permission.
6	Your daughter may try on a few different sizes.
7	The doctor get here as soon as he can.
8	Do you work next weekend?
9	Bicyclists remember to signal when they turn.
10	Angela, you leave your clothes all over the floor like this.

Must not, Mustn't (prohibition)

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We use must not to say that something is not permitted or allowed, for example:

Passengers must not talk to the driver.

Structure of Must not

Must is an auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure for must not is:

subject + must not + main verb

The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").

Must not is often contracted to mustn't.

Look at these examples:

subject	auxiliary must + not	main verb
I	mustn't	forget	my keys.
You	mustn't	disturb	him.
Students	must not	be	late.

NB: like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by "to". So, we say:

You mustn't arrive late. (not You mustn't to arrive late.)

Use of Must not

Must not expresses prohibition - something that is not permitted, not allowed. The prohibition can be subjective (the speaker's opinion) or objective (a real law or rule). Look at these examples:

I mustn't eat so much sugar. (subjective)
You mustn't watch so much television. (subjective)
Students must not leave bicycles here. (objective)
Policemen must not drink on duty. (objective)

We can use must not to talk about the present or the future:

Visitors must not smoke. (present)
I mustn't forget Tara's birthday. (future)

We cannot use must not to talk about the past. We use other structures to talk about the past, for example:

We were not allowed to enter.
I couldn't park outside the shop.

Must (subjective obligation)

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We often use must to say that something is essential or necessary, for example:

I must go.

Structure of Must

Must is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure is:

subject + must + main verb

The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").

Look at these examples:

Like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by to. So, we say:

I must go now. (not *I must to go now.)

subject	auxiliary must	main verb
I	must	go	home.
You	must	visit	us.
We	must	stop	now.

Use of Must

In general, must expresses personal obligation. Must expresses what the speaker thinks is necessary. Must is subjective. Look at these examples:

It is sometimes possible to use must for real obligation, for example a rule or a law. But generally we use have to for this.

I must stop smoking.
You must visit us soon.
He must work harder.

In each of the above cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of the person speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is not imposed from outside.

We can use must to talk about the present or the future. Look at these examples:

I must go now. (present)
I must call my mother tomorrow. (future)

We cannot use must to talk about the past. We use have to to talk about the past.

Have to (objective obligation)

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We often use have to to say that something is obligatory, for example:

Children have to go to school.

Structure of Have to

Have to is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience, but in fact it is not a modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb. In the have to structure, "have" is a main verb. The structure is:

subject + auxiliary verb + have + infinitive (with to)

Look at these examples in the simple tense:

	subject	auxiliary verb	main verb have	infinitive (with to)
+	She		has	to work.
-	I	do not	have	to see	the doctor.
?	Did	you	have	to go	to school?

Use of Have to

In general, have to expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of have to is obliged or forced to act by a separate, external power (for example, the Law or school rules). Have to is objective. Look at these examples:

In France, you have to drive on the right.
In England, most schoolchildren have to wear a uniform.
John has to wear a tie at work.

In each of the above cases, the obligation is not the subject's opinion or idea. The obligation is imposed from outside.

We can use have to in all tenses, and also with modal auxiliaries. We conjugate it just like any other main verb. Here are some examples:

	subject	auxiliary verb	main verb have	infinitive
past simple	I		had	to work	yesterday.
present simple	I		have	to work	today.
future simple	I	will	have	to work	tomorrow.
present continuous	She	is	having	to wait.
present perfect	We	have	had	to change	the time.
modal (may)	They	may	have	to do	it again.

Have to

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Must, Must not/Mustn't

Must is a modal auxiliary verb.

Have to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb have as a main verb). We include have to here for convenience.

In this lesson we look at these two verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Can, Could, Be able to

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Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb be as a main verb). We include be able to here for convenience.

In this lesson we look at these three verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Can

Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to:

talk about possibility and ability
make requests
ask for or give permission

Structure of Can

subject + can + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

	subject	auxiliary verb	main verb
+	I	can	play	tennis.
-	He	cannot	play	tennis.
-	He	can't	play	tennis.
?	Can	you	play	tennis?

Notice that:

Can is invariable. There is only one form of can.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"). We cannot say:

Use of Can

can: Possibility and Ability

We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:

She can drive a car.
John can speak Spanish.
I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.)
Can you hear me?

Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make present decisions about future ability.

Can you help me with my homework? (present)
Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)

can: Requests and Orders

We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal (mainly between friends and family):

Can you make a cup of coffee, please.
Can you put the TV on.
Can you come here a minute.
Can you be quiet!

can: Permission

We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:

Can I smoke in this room?
You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.

(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission is informal.)

Could

Could is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use could to:

talk about past possibility or ability
make requests

Structure of Could

subject + could + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

	subject	auxiliary verb	main verb
+	My grandmother	could	swim.
-	She	could not	walk.
-	She	couldn't	walk.
?	Could	your grandmother	swim?

Notice that:

Could is invariable. There is only one form of could.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:

Use of Could

could: Past Possibility or Ability

We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were able or free to do:

I could swim when I was 5 years old.
My grandmother could speak seven languages.
When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn't open the door.)
Could you understand what he was saying?

We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in the past. But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we use be able to (positive) and couldn't (negative). Look at these examples:

	Past
	General	Specific Occasion
+	My grandmother could speak Spanish.	A man fell into the river yesterday. The police were able to save him.
-	My grandmother couldn't speak Spanish.	A man fell into the river yesterday. The police couldn't save him.

could: Requests

We often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The use of could in this way is fairly polite (formal):

Could you tell me where the bank is, please?
Could you send me a catalogue, please?

Be able to

Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply the verb be plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at be able to here because we sometimes use it instead of can and could.

We use be able to:

to talk about ability

Structure of Be able to

The structure of be able to is:

subject + be + able + infinitive

	subject	be main verb	able adjective	infinitive
+	I	am	able	to drive.
-	She	is not	able	to drive.
-	She	isn't	able	to drive.
?	Are	you	able	to drive?

Notice that be able to is possible in all tenses, for example:

I was able to drive...
I will be able to drive...
I have been able to drive...

Notice too that be able to has an infinitive form:

I would like to be able to speak Chinese.

Use of Be able to

Be able to is not a modal auxiliary verb. We include it here for convenience, because it is often used like "can" and "could", which are modal auxiliary verbs.

be able to: ability

We use be able to to express ability. "Able" is an adjective meaning: having the power, skill or means to do something. If we say "I am able to swim", it is like saying "I can swim". We sometimes use "be able to" instead of "can" or "could" for ability. "Be able to" is possible in all tenses - but "can" is possible only in the present and "could" is possible only in the past for ability. In addition, "can" and "could" have no infinitive form. So we use "be able to" when we want to use other tenses or the infinitive. Look at these examples:

I have been able to swim since I was five. (present perfect)
You will be able to speak perfect English very soon. (future simple)
I would like to be able to fly an airplane. (infinitive)

Can, Could, Be able to Quiz

1	he understand what you were talking about?
2	My sister play tennis now.
3	I walk when I was less than a year old.
4	(Polite) you tell me what time it is, please?
5	My grandfather walk without any help last night.
6	I would like to play the piano.
7	How long have you drive?
8	I'll help you later.
9	Can you help me? I never understand this.
10	Will Man live forever one day?

Modal Verbs (modal auxiliaries)

2009-09-05T04:54:00.000-07:00

Modal auxiliary verbs may sound difficult but in fact they're easy. They are invariable (no conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare infinitive" (the infinitive without "to").

Can, Could, Be able to | Quiz
Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb be as a main verb). We include be able to here for convenience.

Have to, Must, Must not/Mustn't | Quiz
Must is a modal auxiliary verb. Have to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb have as a main verb). We include have to here for convenience.

Shall versus Will | Should versus Would
People may sometimes tell you that there is no difference between shall and will, or even that today nobody uses shall (except in offers such as "Shall I call a taxi?"). They say the same thing about should, but it's not really true.

Would | Quiz
Would is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use would mainly to talk about the past, talk about the future in the past and express the conditional mood.

Should | Quiz
Should is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use should mainly to give advice or make recommendations, talk about obligation or talk about probability and expectation.

Conditionals Quiz

2009-09-05T04:53:00.001-07:00

1	What would you do if it on your wedding day?
2	If she comes I call you.
3	If I eat peanut butter I sick.
4	What will you do if you the history exam?
5	If they had not the car I would have driven you.
6	If it snows still drive to the coast?
7	He would have with you if you had asked him.
8	If I won a million dollars I my own airplane.
9	If I forget her birthday Andrea upset.
10	Jacob will pick you up at school if it .

Conditionals: Summary

2009-09-05T04:52:00.000-07:00

Here is a chart to help you to visualize the basic English conditionals. Do not take the 50% and 10% figures too literally. They are just to help you.

probability

conditional

example

time

100%

zero conditional

If you heat ice, it melts.

any time

50%

first conditional

If it rains, I will stay at home.

future

10%

second conditional

If I won the lottery, I would buy a car.

future

third conditional

If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a car.

past

Zero Conditional: certainty

2009-09-05T04:51:00.000-07:00

We use the so-called zero conditional when the result of the condition is always true, like a scientific fact.

Take some ice. Put it in a saucepan. Heat the saucepan. What happens? The ice melts (it becomes water). You would be surprised if it did not.

IF	condition	result
	present simple	present simple
If	you heat ice	it melts.

Notice that we are thinking about a result that is always true for this condition. The result of the condition is an absolute certainty. We are not thinking about the future or the past, or even the present. We are thinking about a simple fact. We use the present simple tense to talk about the condition. We also use the present simple tense to talk about the result. The important thing about the zero conditional is that the condition always has the same result.

We can also use when instead of if, for example: When I get up late I miss my bus.

Look at some more examples in the tables below:

IF	condition	result
	present simple	present simple
If	I miss the 8 o'clock bus	I am late for work.
If	I am late for work	my boss gets angry.
If	people don't eat	they get hungry.
If	you heat ice	does it melt?

result	IF	condition
present simple		present simple
I am late for work	if	I miss the 8 o'clock bus.
My boss gets angry	if	I am late for work.
People get hungry	if	they don't eat.
Does ice melt	if	you heat it?

Third Conditional: no possibility

2009-09-05T04:50:00.000-07:00

The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With the third conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a condition in the past that did not happen. That is why there is no possibility for this condition. The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibility of the dream coming true.

Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win. :-(

	condition	result
	Past Perfect	WOULD HAVE + Past Participle
If	I had won the lottery	I would have bought a car.

Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past condition. You did not win the lottery. So the condition was not true, and that particular condition can never be true because it is finished. We use the past perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use WOULD HAVE + past participle to talk about the impossible past result. The important thing about the third conditional is that both the condition and result are impossible now.

Sometimes, we use should have, could have, might have instead of would have, for example: If you had bought a lottery ticket, you might have won.

Look at some more examples in the tables below:

IF	condition	result
	past perfect	WOULD HAVE + past participle
If	I had seen Mary	I would have told her.
If	Tara had been free yesterday	I would have invited her.
If	they had not passed their exam	their teacher would have been sad.
If	it had rained yesterday	would you have stayed at home?
If	it had rained yesterday	what would you have done?

result	IF	condition
WOULD HAVE + past participle		past perfect
I would have told Mary	if	I had seen her.
I would have invited Tara	if	she had been free yesterday.
Their teacher would have been sad	if	they had not passed their exam.
Would you have stayed at home	if	it had rained yesterday?
What would you have done	if	it had rained yesterday?

Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream

2009-09-05T04:48:00.000-07:00

The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are still thinking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition in the future, and the result of this condition. But there is not a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, you do not have a lottery ticket. Is it possible to win? No! No lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a lottery ticket in the future. So you can think about winning in the future, like a dream. It's not very real, but it's still possible.

IF	condition	result
	past simple	WOULD + base verb
If	I won the lottery	I would buy a car.

Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past simple tense to talk about the future condition. We use WOULD + base verb to talk about the future result. The important thing about the second conditional is that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen.

Here are some more examples:

IF	condition	result
	past simple	WOULD + base verb
If	I married Mary	I would be happy.
If	Ram became rich	she would marry him.
If	it snowed next July	would you be surprised?
If	it snowed next July	what would you do?

result	IF	condition
WOULD + base verb		past simple
I would be happy	if	I married Mary.
She would marry Ram	if	he became rich.
Would you be surprised	if	it snowed next July?
What would you do	if	it snowed next July?

Sometimes, we use should, could or might instead of would, for example: If I won a million dollars, I could stop working.

First Conditional: real possibility

2009-09-05T04:47:00.002-07:00

We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition or situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, it is morning. You are at home. You plan to play tennis this afternoon. But there are some clouds in the sky. Imagine that it rains. What will you do?

IF	condition	result
	present simple	WILL + base verb
If	it rains	I will stay at home.

Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet. But the sky is cloudy and you think that it could rain. We use the present simple tense to talk about the possible future condition. We use WILL + base verb to talk about the possible future result. The important thing about the first conditional is that there is a real possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more examples (do you remember the two basic structures: [IF condition result] and [result IF condition]?):

IF	condition	result
	present simple	WILL + base verb
If	I see Mary	I will tell her.
If	Tara is free tomorrow	he will invite her.
If	they do not pass their exam	their teacher will be sad.
If	it rains tomorrow	will you stay at home?
If	it rains tomorrow	what will you do?

result	IF	condition
WILL + base verb		present simple
I will tell Mary	if	I see her.
He will invite Tara	if	she is free tomorrow.
Their teacher will be sad	if	they do not pass their exam.
Will you stay at home	if	it rains tomorrow?
What will you do	if	it rains tomorrow?

Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will, for example: If you are good today, you can watch TV tonight.

Structure of Conditional Sentences

2009-09-05T04:47:00.001-07:00

The structure of most conditionals is very simple. There are two basic possibilities. Of course, we add many words and can use various tenses, but the basic structure is usually like this:

IF	condition	result
IF	y = 10	2y = 20

or like this:

result	IF	condition
2y = 20	IF	y = 10

English Conditionals

2009-09-05T04:46:00.000-07:00

There are several structures in English that are called conditionals.

"Condition" means "situation or circumstance". If a particular condition is true, then a particular result happens.

If y = 10 then 2y = 20
If y = 3 then 2y = 6

There are three basic conditionals that we use very often. There are some more conditionals that we do not use so often.

In this lesson, we will look at the three basic conditionals as well as the so-called zero conditional. We'll finish with a quiz to check your understanding.

People sometimes call conditionals "IF" structures or sentences, because there is usually (but not always) the word "if" in a conditional sentence.

1000 Phrasal Verbs in Context (eBook)

2009-09-05T04:43:00.000-07:00

A list of 1000 common English phrasal verbs for ESL learners with sample sentences, exercises and answers. This guide for intermediate to advanced students by Matt Errey contains 1,000 phrasal verbs with 2,000 example sentences plus 1,000 quiz questions and answers. Designed to help learners of English improve their knowledge of phrasal verbs, this e-book can be used as a self-study guide by learners, or the printer-friendly material can easily be used by teachers in class.

Availability: Immediate download. You will receive an email with download link upon order.

Price: $27.85

Similar Products:
English Prepositions List (eBook) + 1000 Phrasal Verbs in Context (eBook)

1000 phrasal verbs in alphabetical list for quick and easy reference
2000 example sentences (2 sentences for each phrasal verb)
Read the sentence, get the meaning, check your understanding
Grammar notes, usage tips and related phrasal verbs
Spaces to write your own definitions, notes and examples
Suitable for self-study at home or classroom use
Links to hundreds of exercises, quizzes and fun interactive games
Plus! 1000 phrasal verb quiz questions (with answers)

"Since I learned many new phrasal verbs from this book I can understand foreigners speaking so much better and in the movies much better too."
Amphol Bunnag, ESL Learner, Chiang Mai, Thailand

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Phrasal Verbs and other multi-word verbs

2009-09-05T04:39:00.000-07:00

Phrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called "multi-word verbs". Phrasal verbs and other multi-word verbs are an important part of the English language. Multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, are very common, especially in spoken English. A multi-word verb is a verb like "pick up", "turn on" or "get on with". For convenience, many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. These verbs consist of a basic verb + another word or words. The other word(s) can be prepositions and/or adverbs. The two or three words that make up multi-word verbs form a short "phrase" - which is why these verbs are often all called "phrasal verbs".

The important thing to remember is that a multi-word verb is still a verb. "Get" is a verb. "Get up", is also a verb, a different verb. "Get" and "get up" are two different verbs. They do not have the same meaning. So you should treat each multi-word verb as a separate verb, and learn it like any other verb. Look at these examples. You can see that there are three types of multi-word verb:

single-word verb		look	direct your eyes in a certain direction	You must look before you leap.
multi-word verbs	prepositional verbs	look after	take care of	Who is looking after the baby?
	phrasal verbs	look up	search for and find information in a reference book	You can look up my number in the telephone directory.
	phrasal-prepositional verbs	look forward to	anticipate with pleasure	I look forward to meeting you.

In this lesson we look at the three types of multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Phrasal Verbs
Prepositional Verbs
Phrasal-prepositional Verbs
Phrasal Verbs Quiz

Like many grammar books, we divide multi-word verbs into:

prepositional verbs
phrasal verbs
phrasal-prepositional verbs

Other grammars, however, call all multi-word verbs "phrasal verbs".

Phrasal Verbs Reference
Hundreds of phrasal verbs listed in EnglishClub's language reference. With definitions, example sentences, quizzes and answers.

1000 Phrasal Verbs in Context is a self-study guide for intermediate to advanced students. It contains 1,000 phrasal verbs with 2,000 example sentences plus 1,000 quiz questions and answers.

Designed to help learners of English improve their knowledge of phrasal verbs, this e-book can be used as a self-study guide by learners, or the material can be used by teachers in class.

1000 Phrasal Verbs
2000 example sentences
1000 quiz questions
with answers

Gerunds Quiz

2009-09-05T04:37:00.000-07:00

1	I dislike to the movies by myself.
2	We started dinner without you.
3	I can't imagine my own house.
4	I used that television show all of the time.
5	I always eat breakfast before to school.
6	When do you practise the piano?
7	My grandmother prefers science fiction books.
8	You need harder this year.
9	I am used to her in a bad mood.
10	Have you talked to the dentist about your teeth?

Gerunds in Passive Sense

2009-09-05T04:36:00.000-07:00

We often use a gerund after the verbs need, require and want. In this case, the gerund has a passive sense.

I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed)
This letter requires signing. (needs to be signed)
The house wants repainting. (needs to be repainted)

The expression "something wants doing" is British English.

Gerunds after Certain Verbs

2009-09-05T04:35:00.000-07:00

We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the infinitive form, for example:

I want to eat.

But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form, for example:

I dislike eating.

This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by a verb in gerund form:

admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, can't help, imagine, involve, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand, suggest, understand

Look at these examples:

She is considering having a holiday.
Do you feel like going out?
I can't help falling in love with you.
I can't stand not seeing you.

Some verbs can be followed by the gerund form or the infinitive form without a big change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start

I like to play tennis.
I like playing tennis.
It started to rain.
It started raining.

Gerunds (-ing)

2009-09-05T04:28:00.000-07:00

Gerunds are sometimes called "verbal nouns"

When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is important to understand that they are not the same.

When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund:

Fishing is fun.

When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually a present participle:

Anthony is fishing.
I have a boring teacher.

In this lesson, we look at the different ways in which we use gerunds, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement

Try to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form.

Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence:

Smoking costs a lot of money.
I don't like writing.
My favourite occupation is reading.

But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case, the whole expression [gerund + object] can be the subject, object or complement of the sentence.

Smoking cigarettes costs a lot of money.
I don't like writing letters.
My favourite occupation is reading detective stories.

Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and other determiners):

pointless questioning
a settling of debts
the making of Titanic
his drinking of alcohol

But when we use a gerund with an article, it does not usually take a direct object:

a settling of debts (not a settling debts)
Making "Titanic" was expensive.
The making of "Titanic" was expensive.

Question

Do you see the difference in these two sentences? In one, "reading" is a gerund (noun). In the other "reading" is a present participle (verb).

My favourite occupation is reading.
My favourite niece is reading.

Answer

reading as gerund (noun)	Main Verb	Complement
My favourite occupation	is	reading.
My favourite occupation	is	football.
reading as present participle (verb)	Auxiliary Verb	Main Verb
My favourite niece	is	reading.
My favourite niece	has	finished.

Gerunds after Prepositions

This is a good rule. It has no exceptions!

If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund. It is impossible to use an infinitive after a preposition. So for example, we say:

I will call you after arriving at the office.
Please have a drink before leaving.
I am looking forward to meeting you.
Do you object to working late?
Tara always dreams about going on holiday.

Notice that you could replace all the above gerunds with "real" nouns:

I will call you after my arrival at the office.
Please have a drink before your departure.
I am looking forward to our lunch.
Do you object to this job?
Tara always dreams about holidays.

The above rule has no exceptions! So why is "to" followed by "driving" in 1 and by "drive" in 2?

I am used to driving on the left.
I used to drive on the left.

Answer

to as preposition	Preposition
I am used	to	driving on the left.
I am used	to	animals.
to as infinitive	Infinitive
I used	to drive	on the left
I used	to smoke.

Active or Passive Quiz

2009-09-05T04:26:00.001-07:00

1	I ate a piece of chocolate cake.
2	The librarian read the book to the students.
3	The money was stolen.
4	They are paid on Fridays.
5	The movie is being made in Hollywood.
6	I washed my car three weeks ago.
7	His hair was cut by a professional.
8	I will introduce you to my boss this week.
9	It would have been fixed on the weekend.
10	The national anthem is being sung by Jason this time.

Passive Voice

2009-09-05T04:22:00.000-07:00

The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the "normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we look at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to conjugate it.

Construction of the Passive Voice

The structure of the passive voice is very simple:

subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle)

The main verb is always in its past participle form.

Look at these examples:

subject	auxiliary verb (to be)		main verb (past participle)
Water	is		drunk	by everyone.
100 people	are		employed	by this company.
I	am		paid	in euro.
We	are	not	paid	in dollars.
Are	they		paid	in yen?

Use of the Passive Voice

We use the passive when:

we want to make the active object more important
we do not know the active subject

	subject	verb	object
give importance to active object (President Kennedy)	President Kennedy	was killed	by Lee Harvey Oswald.
active subject unknown	My wallet	has been stolen.	?

Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten by cats).

Look at this sentence:

He was killed with a gun.

Normally we use by to introduce the passive object. But the gun is not the active subject. The gun did not kill him. He was killed by somebody with a gun. In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a gun. The gun is the instrument. Somebody is the "agent" or "doer".

Conjugation for the Passive Voice

We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is always be. To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example:

present simple: It is made
present continuous: It is being made
present perfect: It has been made

Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:

infinitive		to be washed
simple	present	It is washed.
	past	It was washed.
	future	It will be washed.
	conditional	It would be washed.
continuous	present	It is being washed.
	past	It was being washed.
	future	It will be being washed.
	conditional	It would be being washed.
perfect simple	present	It has been washed.
	past	It had been washed.
	future	It will have been washed.
	conditional	It would have been washed.
perfect continuous	present	It has been being washed.
	past	It had been being washed.
	future	It will have been being washed.
	conditional	It would have been being washed.

Active Voice, Passive Voice

2009-09-05T04:20:00.000-07:00

There are two special forms for verbs called voice:

Active voice
Passive voice

The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb:

active	subject	verb	object
		>
	Cats	eat	fish.

The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb:

passive	subject	verb	object
	<
	Fish	are eaten	by cats.

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:

	subject	verb	object
active	Everybody	drinks	water.
passive	Water	is drunk	by everybody.

Pronunciation Power

2009-08-25T05:50:00.000-07:00

Recommended for learners (beginner to advanced)

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Pronunciation Power 2 is an interactive, user friendly yet sophisticated teaching tool. Designed for intermediate to advanced English students of all ages, the program contains hundreds of hours of professional instruction.

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Speech Analysis

Listen to the instructor pronounce the sound; then see the instructor's waveform.
Record your own pronunciation and waveform of the sound.
Compare your waveform to the instructor's waveform.

Vocal Mechanics

Learn how the sound is made through detailed pictures of the human mouth.
Side view: observe the movement of an animated face - see the tongue guide the sound.
Front view: observe the movement of the instructor's mouth - see the lips form the sound.

Practice Exercises

Choose from one of four exercise lesson sets to help you practise the 52 sounds.
As you master the lessons you are mastering spoken English!

Sample and Comparative Words

Study 15 example words plus 20 comparative words per sound.
Listen to the instructor pronounce the sample and comparative words.
Record your own voice and compare your pronunciation to the instructor's.

Listening Discrimination

Up to 15 listening-discrimination exercises for each sound. Listen to the instructor reading a sentence.
Choose the word that the instructor uses in each sentence.
The program tells you if you identified the right word.

Sentence Exercises

10 sentences per sound.
Listen to the instructor read the sentence.
Record your voice while you say the sentence.
Compare your voice to the voice of your instructor - your English speaking partner.

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2009-08-25T05:31:00.000-07:00

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English Grammar

2009-08-24T08:35:00.001-07:00

Welcome to English today English Grammar for ESL learners. Many of these grammar lessons also have quizzes to check your understanding. If you still don't understand something, feel free to ask a question at the Grammar Help Desk.

grammar (noun): the structure and system of a language, or of languages in general, usually considered to consist of syntax and morphology.

What is Grammar?

English Grammar Terms (long version)
English Grammar Terms (short version)

The 8 English Parts of Speech
These are the words that you use to make a sentence. There are only 8 types of word - and the most important is the Verb!

Verbs be, have, do, work
Nouns man, town, music
Adjectives a, the, 69, big
Adverbs loudly, well, often
Pronouns you, ours, some
Prepositions at, in, on, from
Conjunctions and, but, though
Interjections ah, dear, er, um

Words with More than One Job and Parts of Speech Quiz

2009-08-24T08:30:00.000-07:00

Many words in English can have more than one job, or be more than one part of speech. For example, "work" can be a verb and a noun; "but" can be a conjunction and a preposition; "well" can be an adjective, an adverb and an interjection. In addition, many nouns can act as adjectives.

To analyze the part of speech, ask yourself: "What job is this word doing in this sentence?"

In the table below you can see a few examples. Of course, there are more, even for some of the words in the table. In fact, if you look in a good dictionary you will see that the word but has six jobs to do:

verb, noun, adverb, pronoun, preposition and conjuction!

word	part of speech	example
work	noun	My work is easy.
work	verb	I work in London.
but	conjunction	John came but Mary didn't come.
but	preposition	Everyone came but Mary.
well	adjective	Are you well?
	adverb	She speaks well.
	interjection	Well! That's expensive!
afternoon	noun	We ate in the afternoon.
afternoon	noun acting as adjective	We had afternoon tea.

1	I bought a beautiful dress at the mall.
2	What did she ask you to do?
3	I left my shoes under the kitchen table.
4	If we finish our work quickly we can go to the movies.
5	On Saturdays I work from nine to five.
6	I want to go to a university in the United States.
7	I'm sure I have met your girlfriend before.
8	Well, I don't think I will be here to answer the phone.
9	Andy knocked on the door but nobody answered.
10	After lunch let's go out for a coffee.

Parts of Speech Examples

2009-08-24T08:29:00.000-07:00

Here are some sentences made with different English parts of speech:

verb

Stop!

noun	verb
John	works.

noun	verb	verb
John	is	working.

pronoun	verb	noun
She	loves	animals.

noun	verb	adjective	noun
Animals	like	kind	people.

noun	verb	noun	adverb
Tara	speaks	English	well.

noun	verb	adjective	noun
Tara	speaks	good	English.

pronoun	verb	preposition	adjective	noun	adverb
She	ran	to	the	station	quickly.

pron.	verb	adj.	noun	conjunction	pron.	verb	pron.
She	likes	big	snakes	but	I	hate	them.

Here is a sentence that contains every part of speech:

interjection	pron.	conj.	adj.	noun	verb	prep.	noun	adverb
Well,	she	and	young	John	walk	to	school	slowly.

Parts of Speech Table

2009-08-24T08:28:00.000-07:00

This is a summary of the 8 parts of speech*. You can find more detail if you click on each part of speech.

part of speech	function or "job"	example words	example sentences
Verb	action or state	(to) be, have, do, like, work, sing, can, must	EnglishClub.com is a web site. I like EnglishClub.com.
Noun	thing or person	pen, dog, work, music, town, London, teacher, John	This is my dog. He lives in my house. We live in London.
Adjective	describes a noun	a/an, the, 69, some, good, big, red, well, interesting	My dog is big. I like big dogs.
Adverb	describes a verb, adjective or adverb	quickly, silently, well, badly, very, really	My dog eats quickly. When he is very hungry, he eats really quickly.
Pronoun	replaces a noun	I, you, he, she, some	Tara is Indian. She is beautiful.
Preposition	links a noun to another word	to, at, after, on, but	We went to school on Monday.
Conjunction	joins clauses or sentences or words	and, but, when	I like dogs and I like cats. I like cats and dogs. I like dogs but I don't like cats.
Interjection	short exclamation, sometimes inserted into a sentence	oh!, ouch!, hi!, well	Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are you? Well, I don't know.

* Some grammar sources categorize English into 9 or 10 parts of speech. At EnglishClub.com, we use the traditional categorization of 8 parts of speech. Examples of other categorizations are:

Verbs may be treated as two different parts of speech:
- Lexical Verbs (work, like, run)
- Auxiliary Verbs (be, have, must)
Determiners may be treated as a separate part of speech, instead of being categorized under Adjectives

English Parts of Speech

2009-08-24T08:27:00.000-07:00

Some grammar books categorize English into 9 or 10 parts of speech. At English Club, we use the traditional categorization of 8 parts of speech (see Table for more details).

There are thousands of words in any language. But not all words have the same job. For example, some words express "action". Other words express a "thing". Other words "join" one word to another word. These are the "building blocks" of the language. Think of them like the parts of a house. When we want to build a house, we use concrete to make the foundations or base. We use bricks to make the walls. We use window frames to make the windows, and door frames to make the doorways. And we use cement to join them all together. Each part of the house has its own job. And when we want to build a sentence, we use the different types of word. Each type of word has its own job.

We can categorize English words into 8 basic types or classes. These classes are called "parts of speech".

It's quite important to recognize parts of speech. This helps you to analyze sentences and understand them. It also helps you to construct good sentences.

In this lesson, we have an overview of the eight parts of speech, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

US Justice Department Considers Criminal Prosecution of Interrogators

2009-08-24T06:57:00.001-07:00

A major U.S. newspaper reports the U.S. Justice Department is recommending that some cases of alleged prisoner abuse by the Central Intelligence Agency be pursued in court.

The New York Times cites an unnamed source saying the Office of Professional Responsibility made the recommendation to U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder. He is now considering whether to appoint a prosecutor to investigate the CIA's interrogation practices during the administration of President George W. Bush.

The move could expose CIA employees and agency contractors to criminal prosecution for alleged mistreatment of terror suspects.

But President Barack Obama has said he wants to leave the issue in the past to avoid getting his administration's agenda bogged down in controversies of the past.

On Monday, the CIA's internal investigator will publish a report with details of the CIA's interrogation techniques under the Bush administration.
The report was written in 2004, but kept secret until now. The American Civil Liberties Union fought for the results to be made public.

Sources who have seen the report say CIA interrogators brandished a gun while questioning one prisoner, Abd al Rahim al-Nashiri, the man accused of masterminding an attack on the USS Cole. They also held a power drill near his body, turning it on and off.

In another case, a gunshot was fired in a room next door, to make one suspect believe another detainee had been executed. According to U.S. law, threatening a prisoner with "imminent death" is torture and illegal.

Sources who have seen the report say it suggests that the harsh techniques did not yield useful information.

Scottish Parliament to Review Bomber Release

2009-08-24T06:52:00.000-07:00

Scotland's parliament has called an emergency meeting on Monday to question the decision to give compassionate release to the Lockerbie bomber.

The parliament wants to grill Justice Secretary Kenny McAskill about his decision to release Abdel Baset al-Megrahi, the only person convicted in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 that killed 270 people.

Opposition parties are planning a confidence vote on the decision, with a complete government shakeup possible.
There was intense criticism of Megrahi's release recently. U.S. President Barack Obama, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, and the head of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation all expressed outrage. There were also threats by US citizens to boycott Scottish goods and services.

Megrahi returned to Libya on Thursday to a hero's welcome. He is said to be planning to write a "tell-all book" disclosing new information about Britain's deadliest terrorist attack.

First Minister Alex Salmond, who leads the minority government, has said he understands the strongly held views of the American families of those killed. But, he said a number of families, particularly in Britain, have a different opinion and support the Scottish government's decision.

Former Scottish first minister Jack McConnell criticized Megrahi's release, saying it was a grave error of judgment and had damaged Scotland's international reputation.

Scotland is a part of Britain but has its own legal system and other powers.

Nancy Drew: The Secret of the Girl Detective

2009-08-24T06:47:00.000-07:00

Welcome to THIS IS AMERICA in VOA Special English. I'm Steve Ember.

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And I'm Shirley Griffith. Our subject this week is the teenage investigator in one of the most successful children's book series of all time -- Nancy Drew.

SUSAN LARSON: "Put down that book and go outside and play!"

VOICE ONE:

Susan Larson still remembers her mother's reaction. Susan was about ten years old, growing up in the Midwest, when she discovered Nancy Drew. She enjoyed the mysteries. But there was something else that she especially enjoyed.

SUSAN LARSON: "I wanted to do so much more than girls could do back then. So it was exciting for me to read about this girl, Nancy Drew, who was eighteen and drove a sports car and helped her Dad solve crime. And I read more than I went outside and played and made my mom mad."

VOICE TWO:

Susan Larson grew up and became a librarian. She works in the Fairfax County Public Library, the largest system in Virginia. She still talks warmly about the Nancy Drew series which has been around for almost eighty years.

Publisher Simon and Schuster says it has sold two hundred million copies of Nancy Drew books in twenty-five languages around the world. Mothers have given copies to their daughters, who saved them for their own daughters.

Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton read Nancy Drew. So did all three of the women ever to serve on the United States Supreme Court. They are the retired Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, the current Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg and the newest justice, Sonia Sotomayor.

Another reader who was influenced by the original Nancy Drew series is Janet Evanovich. She writes best sellers about a female bounty hunter named Stephanie Plum. Bounty hunters act as unofficial law enforcement agents.

Recognize a pattern here?

Jennifer Fisher is a lawyer and Nancy Drew collector in Arizona who organizes Nancy Drew conventions.

JENNIFER FISHER: "There's a lot of fans I come across who have gone on to have careers in law enforcement or become attorneys like myself. And I think that Nancy's great sense of, you know, fighting for justice and helping others was a great inspiration."

VOICE ONE:

Who is Nancy Drew? She is a teenager whose mother died when she was very young. She lives with her father and their housekeeper, Hannah Gruen, in the town of River Heights. Nancy is pretty and popular. She has a boyfriend, Ned Nickerson, and two best girlfriends, Bess Marvin and George Fayne.

Nancy is always investigating mysterious wrongdoing, and often faces danger. She is trapped in trunks, closets, and locked rooms. But in the end she always succeeds.

Nancy Drew as pictured on the cover of the first book in the series, "The Secret of the Old Clock."

Susan Larson reads a scene from Nancy Drew's first adventure, "The Secret of the Old Clock":

SUSAN LARSON: "Nancy struggled to get away. She twisted and squirmed, kicked and clawed. But she was helpless in the viselike grip of the powerful man.

"'Let me go!' Nancy cried, struggling harder. 'Let me go!'"

"Sid, ignoring her pleas, half dragged her across the room. Opening the closet door, he flung her inside."

"Nancy heard a key turn."

"'Now you can spy all you want!' Sid sneered. 'But to make sure nobody'll let you out, I'll just take this key along.'"

"When Nancy could no longer hear the tramp of his heavy boots she was sure Sid had left the house. For a moment a feeling of great relief engulfed her."

"But the next instant Nancy's heart gave a leap. As she heard the muffled roar of the van starting up in the distance, a horrifying realization gripped her."

"'They've left me here to -- to starve!'"

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

All of the Nancy Drew books were written by Carolyn Keene -- or so readers are supposed to believe. In reality there was no Carolyn Keene.

Edward Stratemeyer

Children's writer Edward Stratemeyer came up with the idea of Nancy Drew in nineteen twenty-nine. He wanted to create a series for girls who were about ten to twelve years old.

But Stratemeyer did not write the books either. He had a system. He would describe characters and plots, then have ghostwriters expand those ideas into a book.

These uncredited writers had to sign agreements never to admit their work. In return, they earned one hundred twenty-five dollars, later raised to two hundred fifty dollars, for each book.

The Stratemeyer Syndicate also invented authors for other popular children's series. These included Tom Swift, the Bobbsey Twins and the Hardy Boys.

VOICE ONE:

The first Nancy Drew books were published in April of nineteen thirty. That was ten years after American women gained a constitutional right to vote. And it was six months after the stock market crash that led to the Great Depression.

Mildred Wirt Benson

The first ghostwriter was Mildred Wirt Benson. Her identity became widely known years later as a result of a legal fight between Stratemeyer Syndicate and its former publisher. She was a journalism graduate of the University of Iowa. She was twenty-four when she wrote "The Secret of the Old Clock" and other early Nancy Drew books.

VOICE TWO:

Mildred Benson disagreed with Edward Stratemeyer's traditional ideas about women. She thought girls could, and should, do the same things as boys. So she made Nancy Drew independent -- or "spunky" as she is often described.

There was not much that Stratemeyer could do about it. He died in May of nineteen thirty, just two weeks after the first three books were published.

His two daughters took over the company. But that did not mean all the women involved with Nancy Drew agreed on how she should act. Reports from the time say the Stratemeyer daughters felt she should be more ladylike.

VOICE ONE:

Mildred Benson wrote twenty-three of the first thirty "Nancy Drew Mystery Stories," the name given the original series. The series expanded over the years to one hundred seventy-five books.

But collector Jennifer Fisher says more than five hundred Nancy Drew books have been published. These include more recent ones such as "Nancy Drew on Campus" in which Nancy is a college student. Another series aimed for younger readers with an eight-year-old Nancy in "The Nancy Drew Notebooks."

The modern world of Nancy Drew also includes a series of graphic novels. And there is the continuing series "Nancy Drew: Girl Detective."

Simon and Schuster publicist Anna McKean says the girl detective stays true to her roots but is "ultra-modern." She drives an environmentally friendly hybrid and checks her e-mail on a BlackBerry. Storylines have explored things such as bullying, cyberspace and reality TV.

VOICE TWO:

In nineteen fifty-nine, Harriet Stratemeyer Adams began rewriting the original series of books that her father created. She got her chance to change Nancy's personality. She made her quieter and more polite.

She also changed the name of Nancy's friend from George Fayne to Georgia and made "George" her nickname. In the original series the girl was named after her grandfather.

But the rewrites also removed some parts from the early books that might have seemed racially offensive to later generations.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Deanna Raybourn

Deanna Raybourn is an American mystery writer. Her Lady Julia Grey series is set in England in the late eighteen hundreds. Still, she says her books reflect the Nancy Drew stories that she read as a child:

DEANNA RAYBOURN: "Things that I read as a kid keep cropping up in my own work whether I realize it or not. Nancy has a lot of similarities to my Lady Julia. They're affluent, they are motherless, they have doting fathers. Their besetting sin is curiosity and they get themselves into trouble because they snoop in places where they shouldn't."

VOICE TWO:

Another successful mystery writer who read Nancy Drew is Nevada Barr. She writes the best selling series about park ranger Anna Pigeon. Nevada Barr remembers reading Nancy Drew books the summer she was eleven years old.

NEVADA BARR: "My vision is of an incredibly beautiful girl who seemed quite old to me when I was eleven. But you always remember that she had this incredible freedom that most children don't have and she was so smart."

"They didn't do a lot with really smart girls in literature when I was young. And I think that was one of the things that made Nancy Drew special -- this was in the fifties or early sixties -- was that this girl survived by her wits and that was a new thing."

VOICE ONE:

Over the years, Nancy Drew has appeared in movies and television shows, but without very much success. Nancy Drew expert Jennifer Fisher says the reason is no mystery. The stories on the screen had little in common with the books.

Yet Nancy Drew does not capture everyone's imagination. Susan Larson was a children's librarian in the late nineteen nineties and early two thousands. She remembers that young girls often considered the original books too old fashioned. There was not enough action.

In fact, she says one of her great disappointments was that her own daughters did not like the books nearly as much as she did as a girl.

VOICE TWO:

Elizabeth Rhodes also works at the Fairfax County Public Library. In graduate school she wrote a paper on Nancy Drew. She says the original books -- written during the Depression -- served as an escape from difficult economic times.

The books told young girls that they can be more than just someone's wife or daughter. As Elizabeth Rhodes says, that was a revolutionary message for its time. Nancy Drew may not represent classic literature. But after all these years, the message is still worth reading.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Our program was written by Nancy Steinbach and produced by Caty Weaver. I'm Steve Ember.

VOICE TWO:

And I'm Shirley Griffith. Transcripts and podcasts of our programs can be found at voaspecialenglish.com. Join us again next week for THIS IS AMERICA in VOA Special English.

Non-Formal' Schools Aim to Fill Need in Kenya's Slums

2009-08-24T06:42:00.000-07:00

This is the VOA Special English Development Report.

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In two thousand three, the government of Kenya established a program of free primary education for all children. But there are not enough public schools for all the children who live in the crowded slums of Nairobi.

Children attend classes at a slum school in Nairobi, Kenya

Instead, some of these children attend what are known as non-formal or informal schools. These are supported by communities, religious groups and other organizations.

Informal schools use the national curriculum taught in public schools. But they operate largely with limited resources and without trained teachers. Education activists say the Ministry of Education rarely inspects their teaching quality, lesson notes or examination records.

They say the presence of informal schools means that Kenya has two levels of education: One for children from the slums, another for children from better conditions.

Activists say Kenya has at least one thousand six hundred of these non-formal schools. Susan Munuhe is an Education Ministry official. She says only about two hundred informal schools across the country receive money for materials under the free primary education program.

She says one slum in Nairobi, Mathari, has only about three public primary schools nearby. These can serve two thousand children at most. But she says the Mathari slum alone has more than three hundred thousand children of school age.

Diana Atieno Tujuh volunteers as a teacher at the Saint Christine's Community Center in the Kibera slum, one of the largest in Africa. She says the government has provided books for her school only one time during the past few years. Many parents do not have the money to buy books, so sometimes the teachers pay for them.

She says many students are sleepy and unable to pay attention in class because there is not enough food for them at home. For the children at Saint Christine's, the mid-day meal they are served might be their only meal all day.

A government spokesman says the government is trying to discourage informal schools. Alfred Mutua says every child in Kenya has the ability to get the same education. The government, he says, has never rejected a child from a public school. He also says the government is building more schools, but it will take time.

And that's the VOA Special English Development Report, written by Jerilyn Watson with Cathy Majtenyi in Nairobi. Transcripts and podcasts of our reports are at voaspecialenglish.com. I'm Steve Ember.

Eunice Kennedy Shriver, 1921-2009: She Changed the World for People With Mental Disabilities

2009-08-24T06:36:00.000-07:00

VOICE ONE:

I’m Faith Lapidus.

VOICE TWO:

Eunice Kennedy Shriver

And I’m Bob Doughty with PEOPLE IN AMERICA in VOA Special English.

Today we tell about Eunice Kennedy Shriver. She was a member of one of the most famous families in American politics. She used her influence to make a difference in the lives of millions of people. Though she never ran for office, she spent her life energetically working to improve the lives of people with developmental problems.

Eunice Shriver was best known for creating the Special Olympics, an athletic event for people with mental disabilities. Her efforts changed the way the world thinks about the mentally disabled.

EUNICE SHRIVER: "You are the stars and the world is watching you. By your presence, you send a message to every village, every city, every nation. A message of hope, a message of victory. The right to play on any playing field. You have earned it. The right to study in any school. You have earned it. The right to hold a job? You have earned it. The right to be anyone’s neighbor. You have earned it.”

VOICE ONE:

That was Eunice Kennedy Shriver speaking at the nineteen eighty-seven Special Olympics games in South Bend, Indiana. She was a thin and energetic woman with a huge smile and great spirit.

Mrs. Shriver officially became involved in helping people with developmental problems when she became the executive vice-president of a family organization in nineteen fifty-seven. The Joseph P. Kennedy Junior Foundation was created in nineteen forty-six to honor her oldest brother, who died fighting in World War Two.

Under her guidance, the foundation turned its attention to studying the causes of mental disabilities.It also sought to improve the way society treats people with such disabilities. The foundation also started centers for the study of medical ethics at Harvard University and Georgetown University.

VOICE TWO:

Eunice Shriver and her family had a personal reason to be interested in this issue. Her older sister, Rosemary Kennedy, was born mentally retarded. As Rosemary grew older, she became increasingly difficult to live with and supervise. When she was in her twenties, her father arranged for her to have an operation on her brain to improve her mental condition. But the operation left her completely disabled. Her family later sent her to a care center where she lived until her death in two thousand five.

VOICE ONE:

In the past, mental disability was generally treated as a shameful and hopeless disease. Many families secretly sent their disabled children to grow up in institutions. And, there were almost no community activities, resources or jobs for the mentally disabled. They were shut away with little respect and few civil rights.

Eunice Shriver changed this. She showed the world that the mentally disabled could be useful citizens enjoying rich lives.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

Eunice Mary Kennedy was born in Brookline, Massachusetts in nineteen twenty-one. She was the fifth of nine children born to the Irish Catholic family of Joseph and Rose Kennedy. Her grandfather was John Fitzgerald who served as mayor of Boston, Massachusetts and as a lawmaker. Eunice’s father was a wealthy businessman with powerful connections. The Kennedys raised their children to be highly intelligent and highly competitive.

VOICE ONE:

Eunice Kennedy Shriver once said that her father’s advice to his children was to win. He said that coming in second or third did not count, but one had to win, win, win. Mister Kennedy also told his friends that his sons would one day run for president. And, he was right.

President John Kennedy and Eunice Kennedy Shriver

John F. Kennedy became president in nineteen sixty-one and served until his murder two years later. Robert Kennedy, a senator, ran for president in nineteen sixty-eight and was killed that same year. Edward Kennedy never won the presidency, but became a long- serving and important member of the United States Senate.

VOICE TWO:

Eunice Shriver also carried on the family tradition of public service. She graduated in nineteen forty-three with a sociology degree from Stanford University in California. She worked for different organizations as a social worker before working for her family’s foundation. Over the years, she also worked for the political campaigns of her brothers, John, Robert and Edward. In nineteen fifty-three, she married R. Sargent Shriver. They had five children: Robert, Maria, Timothy, Mark and Anthony.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Under the administration of John F. Kennedy, Eunice Shriver continued her work for her foundation. She influenced her brother to create a committee to study developmental disabilities. This effort led to the creation of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development at the National Institutes of Health.

In nineteen sixty-two, Mrs. Shriver published an important article in the Saturday Evening Post called “Hope for Retarded Children.” She wrote openly about her sister Rosemary’s condition. For years, this had been a closely guarded family secret.

Eunice Shriver used Rosemary as an example of how not to treat people with disabilities. Instead, she said people with mental disabilities needed to be treated as useful citizens and given special education and training. She said family members of disabled people had few resources for community support or medical help. She gave examples of parents who struggled to make a better life for their disabled children.

EUNICE KENNEDY SHRIVER: “Think of the families, think of the mothers who love their children but feel so desperately alone. Their children have done nothing wrong, committed no crime and perpetuated no injustice. They are the world’s most innocent victims, and they suffer only because they are different.”

VOICE TWO:

Mrs. Shriver also opened a summer camp that was free of cost for mentally retarded children. The idea for it came when a mother told her that there were no summer camps where she could send her disabled child. So, Eunice Shriver did something about it.

She started Camp Shriver at her home in Maryland to give disabled children a fun summer program filled with physical activities. Non-disabled children were also welcome to join the camp. She made sure there were a large number of workers to give the necessary attention to all the kids. And, she asked students from private schools to volunteer at the camp as helpers.Mizz Shriver was directly involved in all parts of the camp. She would often swim and play ball with the children.

EUNICE KENNEDY SHRIVER:"Don't keep them away from something that can change their lives and give them a new vision and give their parents a new vision of them, just because they don't want someone in the community to say, 'oh, your child is special."

VOICE ONE:

In nineteen sixty-eight, Eunice Shriver organized the first Special Olympics in Chicago, Illinois.

EUNICE KENNEDY SHRIVER: "In ancient Rome, the gladiators went into the arena with these words on their lips: let me win, but if I cannot win, let me be brave in the attempt. Today, all of you young athletes are in the arena. Many of you will win. But even more important, I know you will be brave and bring credit to your parents and to your country. Let us begin the Olympics, thank you."

About one thousand competitors from twenty-six states and Canada took part in the event. They competed in running, swimming and hockey. The idea of permitting mentally disabled people to compete in sports was revolutionary at the time. Before, people with special needs were often prevented from physical activity out of concern that they would hurt themselves or be unable to compete. Mrs. Shriver said that the Special Olympics proved a very important fact: that exceptional children with mental retardation can be exceptional athletes.

Today, the Special Olympics has grown to include about three million athletes in more than one hundred fifty countries.

EUNICE KENNEDY SHRIVER: "Let us not forget that we have miles to go to overturn the prejudice and oppression facing the world's one hundred eighty million citizens with intellectual disabilities."

VOICE TWO:

Eunice Kennedy Shriver continued to work for the disabled in other ways. She created an organization called Community for Caring. It works to reduce teenage pregnancies and educate students about creating caring and respectful communities.

Mrs. Shriver received many awards for her work. These include the French Legion of Honor and the Presidential Medal of Freedom, America’s highest civilian honor.

Family members, including daughter Maria Shriver and her husband, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, rear center

Eunice Kennedy Shriver died in August of two thousand nine after a series of strokes. Her daughter’s husband, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, said that she was the light of the family. And he said her pioneering work for social and scientific improvements changed the lives of millions of developmentally disabled people all over the world.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

This program was written and produced by Dana Demange. For transcripts, MP3s and podcasts of our shows, go to voaspecialenglish.com. I’m Faith Lapidus.

VOICE TWO:

And I’m Bob Doughty. Join us again next week for PEOPLE IN AMERICA in VOA Special English.

English Grammar - Perfect Countinuous Tense

2009-07-28T04:17:00.000-07:00

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

I had been singing

How do we make the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the past perfect continuous tense is:

subject	+	auxiliary verb HAVE	+	auxiliary verb BE	+	main verb
		conjugated in simple past tense		past participle		present participle
		had		been		base + ing

For negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense, we insert not after the first auxiliary verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and first auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past perfect continuous tense:

	subject	auxiliary verb		auxiliary verb	main verb
+	I	had		been	working.
+	You	had		been	playing	tennis.
-	It	had	not	been	working	well.
-	We	had	not	been	expecting	her.
?	Had	you		been	drinking?
?	Had	they		been	waiting	long?

When speaking with the past perfect continuous tense, we often contract the subject and first auxiliary verb:

I had been	I'd been
you had been	you'd been
he had she had been it had been	he'd been she'd been it'd been
we had been	we'd been
they had been	they'd been

How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?

The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses longer actions in the past before another action in the past. For example:

Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had been waiting for two hours.

Ram had been waiting for two hours when I arrived.

past

present

future

Ram starts waiting in past at 9am.

9		11

I arrive in past at 11am.

Here are some more examples:

John was very tired. He had been running.
I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking.
Suddenly, my car broke down. I was not surprised. It had not been running well for a long time.
Had the pilot been drinking before the crash?

You can sometimes think of the past perfect continuous tense like the present perfect continuous tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past.

past perfect continuous tense			present perfect continuous tense
had \| been \| doing \| >>>> \|	\| \| \| \|		\| \| \| \|	have \| been \| doing \| >>>> \|

past	now	future	past	now	future

For example, imagine that you meet Ram at 11am. Ram says to you:

"I am angry. I have been waiting for two hours."

Later, you tell your friends:

"Ram was angry. He had been waiting for two hours."

English Grammar: Perfect Tenses

2009-07-28T04:04:00.000-07:00

I had sung

The past perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use. This tense talks about the "past in the past".

In this lesson we look at:

How do we make the Past Perfect Tense?

The structure of the past perfect tense is:

subject	+	auxiliary verb HAVE	+	main verb
		conjugated in simple past tense		past participle
		had		V3

For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past perfect tense:

	subject	auxiliary verb		main verb
+	I	had		finished	my work.
+	You	had		stopped	before me.
-	She	had	not	gone	to school.
-	We	had	not	left.
?	Had	you		arrived?
?	Had	they		eaten	dinner?

When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:

I had	I'd
you had	you'd
he had she had it had	he'd she'd it'd
we had	we'd
they had	they'd

The 'd contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would. For example, we'd can mean:

We had
or
We would

But usually the main verb is in a different form, for example:

We had arrived (past participle)
We would arrive (base)

It is always clear from the context.

How do we use the Past Perfect Tense?

The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the past. This is the past in the past. For example:

The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the train had left.

The train had left when we arrived.

past

present

future

Train leaves in past at 9am.

9		9.15

We arrive in past at 9.15am.

Look at some more examples:

I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten.
They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours.
I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before.
"Mary wasn't at home when I arrived."
"Really? Where had she gone?"

You can sometimes think of the past perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past.

past perfect tense			present perfect tense
had \| done \| > \|				have \| done \| > \|

past	now	future	past	now	future

For example, imagine that you arrive at the station at 9.15am. The stationmaster says to you:

"You are too late. The train has left."

Later, you tell your friends:

"We were too late. The train had left."

We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said, told, asked, thought, wondered:

Look at these examples:

He told us that the train had left.
I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong.
He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain.
I wondered if I had been there before.
I asked them why they had not finished.

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English Grammar - Simple Past Tense

2009-07-28T03:24:00.000-07:00

I sang

The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterite tense. We can use several tenses to talk about the past, but the simple past tense is the one we use most often.

In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the simple past tense, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

How do we make the Simple Past Tense?

To make the simple past tense, we use:

past form only
or
auxiliary did + base form

Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular verbs and regular verbs:

	V1 base	V2 past	V3 past participle
regular verb	work explode like	worked exploded liked	worked exploded liked	The past form for all regular verbs ends in -ed.
irregular verb	go see sing	went saw sang	gone seen sung	The past form for irregular verbs is variable. You need to learn it by heart.
			You do not need the past participle form to make the simple past tense. It is shown here for completeness only.

The structure for positive sentences in the simple past tense is:

subject	+	main verb
		past

The structure for negative sentences in the simple past tense is:

subject	+	auxiliary verb	+	not	+	main verb
		did				base

The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is:

auxiliary verb	+	subject	+	main verb
did				base

The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you did, he did etc). And the base form and past form do not change. Look at these examples with the main verbs go and work:

	subject	auxiliary verb		main verb
+	I			went	to school.
+	You			worked	very hard.
-	She	did	not	go	with me.
-	We	did	not	work	yesterday.
?	Did	you		go	to London?
?	Did	they		work	at home?

Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was, you were, he/she/it was, we were, they were); and we do not use an auxiliary for negative and question sentences. To make a question, we exchange the subject and verb. Look at these examples:

	subject	main verb
+	I, he/she/it	was		here.
+	You, we, they	were		in London.
-	I, he/she/it	was	not	there.
-	You, we, they	were	not	happy.
?	Was	I, he/she/it		right?
?	Were	you, we, they		late?

How do we use the Simple Past Tense?

We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation - an event - in the past. The event can be short or long.

Here are some short events with the simple past tense:

The car exploded at 9.30am yesterday.
She went to the door.
We did not hear the telephone.
Did you see that car?

past

present

future

The action is in the past.

Here are some long events with the simple past tense:

I lived in Bangkok for 10 years.
The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years.
We did not sing at the concert.
Did you watch TV last night?

past

present

future

The action is in the past.

Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or seconds in the past, or millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how long the event is. It can be a few milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic period). We use the simple past tense when:

the event is in the past
the event is completely finished
we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event

In general, if we say the time or place of the event, we must use the simple past tense; we cannot use the present perfect.

Here are some more examples:

I lived in that house when I was young.
He didn't like the movie.
What did you eat for dinner?
John drove to London on Monday.
Mary did not go to work yesterday.
Did you play tennis last week?
I was at work yesterday.
We were not late (for the train).
Were you angry?

Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use the past continuous tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the simple past tense for the action. Look at this example of the beginning of a story:

"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was cold. The door opened and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and ordered a drink at the bar. He sat down in the corner of the lounge and quietly drank his..."

This page shows the use of the simple past tense to talk about past events. But note that there are some other uses for the simple past tense, for example in conditional or if sentences.

Simple Past Tense Quiz

1	I to the mall after school.
2	My brother a bear an hour ago.
3	Mike visit his grandmother last night?
4	Alex did not last weekend.
5	Judy and Liz at last month's meeting?
6	We not happy after the sad ending.
7	you see Jody's new dog yesterday?
8	Sorry, I hear you at the door.
9	I English for two years.
10	What you eat for lunch yesterday?

English Grammar: Present Perfect Continuous Tense

2009-07-27T21:57:00.000-07:00

I have been singing

How do we make the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the present perfect continuous tense is:

subject	+	auxiliary verb	+	auxiliary verb	+	main verb
		have has		been		base + ing

Here are some examples of the present perfect continuous tense:

	subject	auxiliary verb		auxiliary verb	main verb
+	I	have		been	waiting	for one hour.
+	You	have		been	talking	too much.
-	It	has	not	been	raining.
-	We	have	not	been	playing	football.
?	Have	you		been	seeing	her?
?	Have	they		been	doing	their homework?

Contractions

When we use the present perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and the first auxiliary. We also sometimes do this in informal writing.

I have been	I've been
You have been	You've been
He has been She has been It has been John has been The car has been	He's been She's been It's been John's been The car's been
We have been	We've been
They have been	They've been

Here are some examples:

I've been reading.
The car's been giving trouble.
We've been playing tennis for two hours.

How do we use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?

This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There is usually a connection with the present or now. There are basically two uses for the present perfect continuous tense:

1. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped

We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past and stopped recently. There is usually a result now.

I'm tired because I've been running.

past

present

future

!!!

Recent action.

Result now.

I'm tired ^[now] because I've been running.
Why is the grass wet ^[now]? Has it been raining?
You don't understand ^[now] because you haven't been listening.

2. An action continuing up to now

We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past and is continuing now. This is often used with for or since.

I have been reading for 2 hours.

past

present

future

Action started in past.

Action is continuing now.

I have been reading for 2 hours. [I am still reading now.]
We've been studying since 9 o'clock. [We're still studying now.]
How long have you been learning English? [You are still learning now.]
We have not been smoking. [And we are not smoking now.

For and Since with Present Perfect Continuous Tense

We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.

We use for to talk about a period of time - 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.
We use since to talk about a point in past time - 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.

for

since

a period of time

a point in past time

20 minutes

6.15pm

three days

Monday

6 months

January

4 years

1994

2 centuries

1800

a long time

I left school

ever

the beginning of time

etc

Here are some examples:

I have been studying for 3 hours.
I have been watching TV since 7pm.
Tara hasn't been feeling well for 2 weeks.
Tara hasn't been visiting us since March.
He has been playing football for a long time.
He has been living in Bangkok since he left school.

For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses only.

Present Perfect Continuous Tense Quiz

1	It has snowing a lot this week.
2	your brother and sister been getting along?
3	Rick been studying hard this semester.
4	I'm tired because I been working out.
5	Julie living in Italy since May.
6	How long have you been German.
7	We have been watching TV 3 hours.
8	You have too hard today.
9	Has it raining since you arrived?
10	My brother has been travelling he finished school.

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English Grammar: Present Perfect Tense

2009-07-27T21:48:00.000-07:00

I have sung

The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it gives speakers of some languages a difficult time. That is because it uses concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages. In fact, the structure of the present perfect tense is very simple. The problems come with the use of the tense. In addition, there are some differences in usage between British and American English.

In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the present perfect, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

How do we make the Present Perfect Tense?

The structure of the present perfect tense is:

subject	+	auxiliary verb	+	main verb
		have		past participle

Here are some examples of the present perfect tense:

	subject	auxiliary verb		main verb
+	I	have		seen	ET.
+	You	have		eaten	mine.
-	She	has	not	been	to Rome.
-	We	have	not	played	football.
?	Have	you		finished?
?	Have	they		done	it?

Contractions with the present perfect tense

When we use the present perfect tense in speaking, we usually contract the subject and auxiliary verb. We also sometimes do this when we write.

He's or he's??? Be careful! The 's contraction is used for the auxiliary verbs have and be. For example, "It's eaten" can mean:

It has eaten. [present perfect tense, active voice]
It is eaten. [present tense, passive voice]

It is usually clear from the context.

I have	I've
You have	You've
He has She has It has John has The car has	He's She's It's John's The car's
We have	We've
They have	They've

Here are some examples:

I've finished my work.
John's seen ET.
They've gone home.

How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?

This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with the past and with the present. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense:

experience
change
continuing situation

1. Present perfect tense for experience

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are not interested in when you did something. We only want to know if you did it:

I have seen ET.
He has lived in Bangkok.
Have you been there?
We have never eaten caviar.

past

present

future

!!!

The action or state was in the past.

In my head, I have a memory now.

Connection with past: the event was in the past.
Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I know something about the event; I have experience of it.

2. Present perfect tense for change

We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information:

I have bought a car.
past	present	future
-	+
Last week I didn't have a car.	Now I have a car.

John has broken his leg.
past	present	future
+	-
Yesterday John had a good leg.	Now he has a bad leg.

Has the price gone up?
past	present	future
+	-
Was the price $1.50 yesterday?	Is the price $1.70 today?

The police have arrested the killer.
past	present	future
-	+
Yesterday the killer was free.	Now he is in prison.

Connection with past: the past is the opposite of the present.
Connection with present: the present is the opposite of the past.

Americans do not use the present perfect tense so much as British speakers. Americans often use the past tense instead. An American might say "Did you have lunch?", where a British person would say "Have you had lunch?"

3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is a state that started in the past and continues in the present (and will probably continue into the future). This is a state (not an action). We usually use for or since with this structure.

I have worked here since June.
He has been ill for 2 days.
How long have you known Tara?

past

present

future

The situation started in the past.

It continues up to now.

(It will probably continue into the future.)

Connection with past: the situation started in the past.
Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.

For & Since with Present Perfect Tense

We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.

We use for to talk about a period of time - 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.
We use since to talk about a point in past time - 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.

for	since
a period of time	a point in past time
	x------------
20 minutes	6.15pm
three days	Monday
6 months	January
4 years	1994
2 centuries	1800
a long time	I left school
ever	the beginning of time
etc	etc

Here are some examples:

I have been here for 20 minutes.
I have been here since 9 o'clock.
John hasn't called for 6 months.
John hasn't called since February.
He has worked in New York for a long time.
He has worked in New York since he left school.

For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses only.

Present Perfect Tense Quiz

1	Lindsay not been to France.
2	you finished your homework?
3	They gone to a rock concert.
4	you been to Japan?
5	We never eaten Mexican food.
6	Andrea has her umbrella.
7	the sun come up?
8	The children the lost puppy.
9	How long have you a vegetarian?
10	I haven't worked last December.

English Grammar - Present Countinuous Tense

2009-07-27T21:24:00.000-07:00

I am singing

We often use the present continuous tense in English. It is very different from the simple present tense, both in structure and in use.

In this lesson we look the structure and use of the present continuous tense, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

How do we make the Present Continuouse Tense?

The structure of the present continuous tense is:

subject	+	auxiliary verb	+	main verb
		be		base + ing

Look at these examples:

	subject	auxiliary verb		main verb
+	I	am		speaking	to you.
+	You	are		reading	this.
-	She	is	not	staying	in London.
-	We	are	not	playing	football.
?	Is	he		watching	TV?
?	Are	they		waiting	for John?

How do we use the Present Continuouse Tense?

We use the present continuous tense to talk about:

action happening now
action in the future

Present continuous tense for action happening now

a) for action happening exactly now

I am eating my lunch.

past

present

future

The action is happening now.

Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the same time...


...the pages are turning.	...the candle is burning.	...the numbers are spinning.

b) for action happening around now

The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just after now, and it is not permanent or habitual.

John is going out with Mary.

past

present

future

The action is happening around now.

Look at these examples:

Muriel is learning to drive.
I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.

Present continuous tense for the future

We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future - if we add a future word!! We must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words" include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision and a plan before speaking.

I am taking my exam next month.

past

present

future

!!!

A firm plan or programme exists now.

The action is in the future.

Look at these examples:

We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table..
They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.
When are you starting your new job?

In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decision and plan were made before speaking.

How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?

We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it's simple - we just add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you know how to spell the present continuous tense.

Basic rule

Just add -ing to the base verb:

work

working

play

playing

assist

assisting

see

seeing

being

Exception 1

If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, double the last letter:

s	t	o	p
	consonant	stressed vowel	consonant

(vowels = a, e, i, o, u)

stop

stopping

run

running

begin

beginning

Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the base verb is not stressed:

open

opening

Exception 2

If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:

lie

lying

die

dying

Exception 3

If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e:

come

coming

mistake

mistaking

Present Continuous Tense Quiz

1	they coming over for dinner?
2	Maxwell not sleeping on our sofa.
3	My mother-in-law is at our house this week.
4	I my dinner right now.
5	My sister Spanish.
6	I at the hair salon until September.
7	We at a fancy restaurant tonight. Jason decided this yesterday.
8	When do you your new art class?
9	They are a new record shop downtown.
10	Melissa is down on her bed.

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English Grammar - Present Simple

2009-07-27T21:22:00.000-07:00

I sing

How do we make the Simple Present Tense?

subject	+	auxiliary verb	+	main verb
		do		base

There are three important exceptions:

For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.
For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to the auxiliary.
For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives.

Look at these examples with the main verb like:

	subject	auxiliary verb		main verb
+	I, you, we, they			like	coffee.
+	He, she, it			likes	coffee.
-	I, you, we, they	do	not	like	coffee.
-	He, she, it	does	not	like	coffee.
?	Do	I, you, we, they		like	coffee?
?	Does	he, she, it		like	coffee?

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:

	subject	main verb
+	I	am		French.
	You, we, they	are		French.
	He, she, it	is		French.
-	I	am	not	old.
	You, we, they	are	not	old.
	He, she, it	is	not	old.
?	Am	I		late?
	Are	you, we, they		late?
	Is	he, she, it		late?

How do we use the Simple Present Tense?

We use the simple present tense when:

the action is general
the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future
the action is not only happening now
the statement is always true
John drives a taxi.
past present future
It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.
Look at these examples:
I live in New York.
The Moon goes round the Earth.
John drives a taxi.
He does not drive a bus.
We do not work at night.
Do you play football?

Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb "to be" in the simple present tense - some of them are general, some of them are now:

Am I right? Tara is not at home. You are happy.
past	present	future

The situation is now.

I am not fat. Why are you so beautiful? Ram is tall.
past	present	future

The situation is general. Past, present and future.

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English Grammar: What is a Verb?

2009-07-27T20:58:00.000-07:00

The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word.

Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight, do and work all convey action.

But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey state.

A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is the subject and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:

action (Ram plays football.)
state (Anthony seems kind.)

There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words (adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form (although nouns can have singular and plural forms). But almost all verbs change in form. For example, the verb to work has five forms:

to work, work, works, worked, working

Of course, this is still very few forms compared to some languages which may have thirty or more forms for a single verb.

In this lesson we look at the ways in which we classify verbs, followed by a quiz to test your understanding:

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Breathing Easier: Ways to Control Asthma

2009-07-27T20:37:00.000-07:00

Download (mp3)

This is SCIENCE IN THE NEWS in VOA Special English. I'm Faith Lapidus.

Download (mp3)

And I'm Bob Doughty. This week we talk about the lung disease asthma.

A boy in Lima, Peru gets treatment for asthma

Asthma is a serious lung disease that makes it difficult to breathe. The World Health Organization says asthma affects about three hundred million people worldwide. An estimated two hundred fifty thousand people die from the disease every year. And, more than five hundred thousand are hospitalized.

Asthma happens when tissue that lines the airways to the lungs begins to expand or swell. The swelling makes the airways smaller. The muscles in the airways tighten. Cells in the airways begin to produce too much of a thick, sticky substance called mucous. The mucous causes the airways to close even more. This makes it difficult for air to flow in and out of the lungs.

This series of events is called an asthma attack. As asthma sufferers struggle to get air into their lungs, they may begin to cough a lot. They may also make a whistling or squeaky sound, called wheezing, when they breathe. Some asthma sufferers have tightness or pain in the chest. They say it feels as if someone is sitting on them. When asthma is most severe, the person may have extreme difficulty breathing. The disease can severely limit a person's activity, and even lead to death.

Doctors do not know what causes asthma. Researchers believe a combination of environmental and genetic factors may be responsible. Forty percent of children who have parents with asthma will also develop the disease. Seventy percent of people with asthma also have allergies. Allergies are abnormal reactions of the immune system in response to otherwise harmless substances.

Doctors have identified many of the things that may start, or trigger, an asthma attack. Triggers are things that cause the asthma sufferer's airways to swell. Different people are affected by different triggers. Allergens are one of the most common triggers. These impurities in the air cause allergic reactions. Some the more common allergens include animal fur, dust, mold and pollen.

Pollen is a fine dust that comes from grass, trees and flowers. Mold is a type of fungus. It can grow on the walls and floors of homes. It is commonly found in wet or damp areas like bathrooms, kitchens and basements. A study by the Environmental Protection Agency estimates that twenty-one percent of asthma in the United States is linked to mold and dampness in homes.

Air pollution can also trigger asthma. Cigarette smoke is a major problem for asthma sufferers. So is air pollution caused by cars. Chemical sprays like air fresheners, hair spray, household cleaning products and even strong perfumes can also trigger an asthma attack.

Some people cough, wheeze or feel out of breath during or after exercise. They are said to suffer from exercise induced asthma. During the winter, breathing in cold air can trigger asthma symptoms. So can colds and other respiratory infections.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports more than twenty-two million people suffer from asthma in the United Sates. Among adults, more women have the disease than men. Asthma affects more than seven million children each year and is considered one of the leading childhood illnesses. It is more common among boys than girls.

The National Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases says the disease affects African Americans more than whites. African American children die from the disease at five times the rate of white children.

Special English reporter June Simms has a thirteen year old son with asthma. Arick first showed signs of the disease when he was about two years old. He had a bad cold that seemed to last longer than usual. It was very difficult for him to breathe. When his mother listened to his chest she could hear that squeaky whistling sound known as wheezing. Arick was diagnosed with asthma during an emergency visit to the doctor.

The doctor gave Arick a medicine called albuterol. Albuterol helps to relax the muscles in the airways of the lungs and increases air flow. The doctor also gave Arick a special machine called a nebulizer. It is attached to a mask that he placed over his mouth and nose. The nebulizer turned the liquid albuterol medicine into mist. Arick inhaled the mist through the mask. The treatments made it easier for him to breathe. During times when Arick's asthma was really severe, he was also given steroids to help reduce swelling in his airways.

As Arick grew older, the doctor replaced his nebulizer with a small medical device called an inhaler. He also began seeing a doctor who specializes in treating patients with asthma. This doctor said Arick was "a poor perceiver of his asthma." That means he had a hard time realizing when it was out of control. She advised his parents to use a special device called a peak flow meter. It measures the amount of air Arick is able to push out of his lungs. This can help him realize he is having a problem before he feels it.

The doctor also discovered that Arick suffers from allergies. He now takes daily medicines to help keep his asthma and allergies under control. In two thousand five, he successfully completed the American Lung Association Open Airways for Schools Program. Now Arick is considered an expert in his asthma management. It has been more than two years since he has been to a hospital emergency room because of asthma. And, he is using his inhaler a whole lot less.

Asthma has become a major health problem around the world, and a great problem for individuals, families and economies. The yearly economic cost of asthma is close to twenty billion dollars.

And, the World Health Organization says asthma rates are increasing worldwide by an average of fifty percent every ten years. The largest increase has been among children.

The Global Initiative for Asthma, or GINA, was formed in nineteen ninety-three to raise attention about the growing problem. It also seeks to improve asthma care around the world.

GINA is a joint effort between the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health and the World Health Organization. GINA released a report called "The Global Burden of Asthma" in two thousand four. It said asthma is not just a growing problem in industrial countries. It is also on the rise in developing countries.

The GINA report suggests that asthma rates in developing countries increase as they become more westernized. The report estimates that there may be an additional one hundred million people with asthma by the year two thousand twenty-five.

While asthma cannot be cured, it can be successfully controlled. This year, GINA's World Asthma Day campaign was once again called "You Can Control Your Asthma." The organization launched the campaign in two thousand seven. Its aim is to show that a large majority of asthma patients can control the disease with correct treatment. GINA says several simple steps can help people control their asthma.

People should take their asthma medicines the way their doctor says to take them. Most people need two kids of medicines. One is a quick-acting "rescue" medicine taken when needed to stop asthma symptoms. The other is a controller medicine taken every day to prevent these symptoms.

People should know the causes of their asthma symptoms and try to avoid these triggers. For example, try to avoid animals with fur, dust, pollen from trees and flowers or cigarette smoke. Some people may need to take medicines before they work hard or exercise.

Patients should work with their doctors to control the disease. They should go to the doctor for check-ups even if they are feeling fine. They should make sure they understand how and when to take their medicines. And they should act quickly to treat asthma attacks and know when to seek medical help.

This SCIENCE IN THE NEWS was written by June Simms. Our producer was Brianna Blake. I'm Faith Lapidus.

And I'm Bob Doughty. Archives of our programs are at voaspecialenglish.com. Join us again next week for SCIENCE IN THE NEWS in VOA Special English.

From Traditional to 'Freak,' the Evolution in American Folk Music

2009-07-27T20:33:00.000-07:00

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Welcome to THIS IS AMERICA in VOA Special English. I'm Barbara Klein. This week on our program, we explore American folk music, the music of the people.

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"Good Night Irene," is an example of a traditional folk song. That means the song is so old, no one really knows who wrote it.

Huddie Ledbetter, the singer and guitarist known as, first recorded "Good Night Irene" in nineteen thirty-two. Since then more than a hundred other versions have been recorded. "Good Night Irene," was a huge hit for the Weavers in nineteen fifty.

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Folk music researcher Bob Carlin notes the historic importance of protest songs. They help give voice to cultural and social movements, he says.

One of the members of the Weavers was Pete Seeger. He was among those who popularized folk music in the nineteen forties. Later, he wrote some of the best known songs of the civil rights and anti-Vietnam War protests of the sixties.

Pete Seeger performs earlier this year at a concert celebrating his 90th birthday

Pete Seeger could be called the King of the Protest Song, in the words of folk musician Tony Trischka. Yet his greatest influence may have come from popularizing a song that he himself did not write. "We Shall Overcome" came from a Negro spiritual.

As Tony Trischka points out, the original version was called "We Will Overcome." Pete Seeger thought "shall" sounded better. And he made other changes, like adding the verse "we are not afraid" to offer support for the protests taking place across the country.

"We Shall Overcome," became the theme song of the American civil rights movement.

Folk songs sometimes tell stories about real events. An example is the story of a young man whose last name was spelled D-U-L-A but pronounced "Dooley."

Tom Dula was a Civil War veteran in North Carolina. He was tried and found guilty of the murder of his girlfriend Laura Foster. He was hanged in eighteen sixty-eight, yet the case left many questions.

The story was retold in poems and songs -- including the hit song, "Tom Dooley," recorded in nineteen fifty-eight by the Kingston Trio.

Folk singer and songwriter Amy Speace says the history of American folk music can be imagined as a tree with many branches. At the center, she says, is Woody Guthrie.

Woody Guthrie

Woody Guthrie wrote almost three thousand songs. But he only recorded about three hundred of them. His granddaughter Anna Canoni says that was partly because he did not have enough money to record more. He made only one record with a major record company.

Yet for all his influence, millions of Americans today remember him for just one song, which children learn in school.

The song, "This Land Is Your Land," seems like the perfect expression of pride in country. What many people do not know is that it was meant sarcastically, as just the opposite. Woody Guthrie wrote it in nineteen forty in reaction to Irving Berlin's popular song, "God Bless America."

In fact, Woody Guthrie first called his song, "God Blessed America for Me." It was meant as a protest song against private property and the unequal treatment of citizens.

This meaning is made clear later in the song, in the parts that most children never learn in school:

Another verse talks about seeing hungry people standing in line for public aid at the relief office. Woody Guthrie was a voice for labor unions and striking workers and families beaten down by the Great Depression in the nineteen thirties.

In the nineteen sixties, folk singers like Joan Baez and Bob Dylan protested the Vietnam War. Bob Dylan's, "Blowin' in the Wind," became a big hit for the folk group Peter, Paul and Mary in nineteen sixty-three.

Singer and songwriter Amy Speace says there are still protest songs being written. She points to the examples of Steve Earle and Neil Young as well as what she calls more contemporary folkies.

That would include herself, a child of the eighties. Amy Speace describes one of her songs as a protest song, but more of a story with the protest quietly built into it. The story is about a girl whose brother is a soldier who gets killed in a desert war.

The song is called, "The Weight of the World."

A new kind of folk music mixes elements of traditional folk and rock with mostly acoustic instruments. Some call it "freak folk." Others hate that name.

Joanna Newsom

Whatever you call it, one artist often used as an example is the singer, songwriter and harp player Joanna Newsom. This song is called, "Sprout and the Bean."

Some people probably think of a folk singer as a fossil from the nineteen sixties. A long-haired, guitar-playing idealist who sings about bringing the world together.

But these days, with music production software, digital video and social networks all easily available, folk artists really can bring the world together.

Our program was written by Nancy Steinbach and produced by Caty Weaver. I'm Barbara Klein. Join us again next week for THIS IS AMERICA in VOA Special English.

A Service Group Built on 'Friendship'

2009-07-27T20:30:00.000-07:00

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This is the VOA Special English Development Report.

Amizade means friendship in Portuguese. It is also the name of a service organization in the United States that places volunteers in projects mostly in developing countries. Amizade's executive director, Eric Hartman, thought of the idea in Brazil in nineteen ninety-four, which explains the Portuguese name.

An Amizade volunteer working on a project

The Amizade Global Service-Learning and Volunteer Programs placed three hundred volunteers in nine countries last year. These American university students and others worked in thirteen communities.

Amizade works with local groups and individuals on service and learning projects. The local groups define and direct the projects. The volunteers learn about local culture and make friends as they work in the community.

Amizade charges college students as much as ten thousand dollars for three months of experience.

Volunteers generally provide labor and do things like teach and assist at health centers. They can also do research. College students can earn work-study credits.

Participants in programs have included a twelve-year-old boy and a man in his eighties.

There are programs in Ghana, Tanzania, Brazil, Bolivia, Mexico and Jamaica. There are also programs in Germany, Poland, Northern Ireland and the United States.

Recently, in Tanzania, thirteen Amizade volunteers worked on systems to harvest rainwater from the roofs of homes. They worked on the project in the Karagwe area, in the northwestern part of the country. Eric Hartman, the director, described the water collection systems in blog postings from Tanzania earlier this month.

Rain falls on the metal roofs and flows into aluminum gutters. These gutters carry the water to a large collection tank on the side of the home.

The rain harvesting systems mean that a family member no longer has to walk long distances to get water. So there is more time for farming or schoolwork. The systems are especially useful for those who are too sick to go a long way for water.

On the Caribbean island nation of Jamaica, Amizade places volunteers with a local partner in the small community of Petersfield. The volunteers live with local families. They help children with schoolwork and computer skills. They also visit the sick and work on building, painting and other restoration projects in the community.

And that's the VOA Special English Development Report, written by Jerilyn Watson. I'm Steve Ember.

Clara Barton,1821-1912: A Life of Caring for Others

2009-07-27T20:26:00.000-07:00

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I'm Ray Freeman.

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And I'm Shirley Griffith with the Special English program, People in America. Every week we tell about a person who was important in the history of the United States. Today we tell about a woman who spent her life caring for others, Clara Barton.

Clara Barton was a small woman. Yet she made a big difference in many lives. Today her work continues to be important to thousands of people in trouble.

Clara Barton was an unusual woman for her time. She was born on Christmas day, December twenty-fifth, eighteen twenty-one. In those days, most women were expected to marry, have children and stay home to take care of them. Barton, however, became deeply involved in the world.

By the time of her death in nineteen twelve, she had begun a revolution that led to the right of women to do responsible work for society. As a nurse, she cared for thousands of Wounded soldiers. She began the American Red Cross. And, she successfully urged the American government to accept the Geneva Convention. That treaty established standards for conditions for soldiers injured or captured during wartime.

Clara Barton

Clara Barton really began her life of caring for the sick when she was only eleven years old. She lived with her family on a farm in the northeastern state of Massachusetts. One of her
brothers, David, was seriously injured while helping build a barn. For two years, Clara Barton took care of David until he was healed.

Most eleven-year-old girls would have found the job impossible. But Clara felt a great need to help. And she was very good at it. She also seemed to feel most safe when she was at home with her mother and father, or riding a horse on her family's land.

As a young child, Clara had great difficulty studying and making friends at school. Her four brothers and sisters were much older than she. Several of them were teachers. For most of Clara's early years, she was taught at home. She finished school at age fifteen. Then she went to work in her brother David's clothing factory. The factory soon burned, leaving her without a job.

Clara Barton decided to teach school. In eighteen thirty-six, she passed the teacher's test and began teaching near her home in North Oxford, Massachusetts. She became an extremely popular and respected teacher.

After sixteen years of teaching, she realized she did not know all she wanted to know. She wanted more education. Very few universities accepted women in those days. So Clara went to a special school for girls in Massachusetts. While in that school, she became interested in public education.

After she graduated, a friend suggested she try to establish the first public school in the state of New Jersey. Officials there seemed to think that education was only for children whose parents had enough money to pay for private schools.

The officials did not want Barton to start a school for poor people. But she offered to teach without pay for three months. She told the officials that they could decide after that if she
had been successful. They gave her an old building with poor equipment. And they gave her six very active little boys to teach.

At the end of five weeks, the school was too small for the number of children who wanted to attend. By the end of the year, the town built her a bigger, better school. They had to give her more space. She then had six hundred students in the school.

This photo of Clara Barton -- taken around 1865 by Mathew Brady -- is the most famous and widely circulated image of the founder of the American Red Cross.

Within a year, Clara Barton had lost her voice. She had to give up teaching. She moved to Washington, D.C. to begin a new job writing documents for the United States government.

Clara Barton started her life as a nurse during the early days of the Civil War in eighteen sixty-one. One day, she went to the train center in Washington to meet a group of soldiers from Massachusetts. Many of them had been her friends. She began taking care of their wounds.

Not long after, she left her office job. She became a full-time nurse for the wounded on their way from the fields of battle to the hospital.

Soon, Barton recognized that many more lives could be saved if the men had medical help immediately after they were hurt. Army rules would not permit anyone except male soldiers to be on the battlefield. But Barton took her plans for helping the wounded to a high army official. He approved her plans.

Barton and a few other women worked in the battle areas around Washington. She heard about the second fierce battle at Bull Run in the nearby state of Virginia. She got into a railroad car and traveled there.

Bull Run must have been a fearful sight. Northern forces were losing a major battle there. Everywhere Barton looked lay wounded and dying men.

Day and night she worked to help the suffering. When the last soldier had been placed on a train, Barton finally left. She was just in time to escape the southern army. She escaped by riding a horse, a skill she gained as a young girl.

For four years, Clara Barton was at the front lines of the bloodiest battles in the war between the North and the South. She was there at Antietam, Fredericksburg, and Charleston. She
was there at Spotsylvania, Petersburg, and Richmond. She cleaned the wounds of badly injured soldiers. She eased the pain of the dying. And she fed those who survived.

When she returned to Washington, Clara Barton found she was a hero. She had proved that women could work in terrible conditions. She made people understand that women could provide good medical care. She also showed that nursing was an honorable
profession.

After the war ended, Barton's doctor sent her to Europe to rest. Instead of resting, she met with representatives of the International Red Cross. The organization had been established
in eighteen sixty-three to offer better treatment for people wounded or captured during wars. She was told that the United States was the only major nation that refused to join.

Clara Barton monument at Antietam

Barton began planning a campaign to create an American Red Cross. Before she could go home, though, the war between France and Prussia began in eighteen seventy.

Again, Clara Barton went to the fields of battle to nurse the wounded. After a while her eyes became infected. The woman of action was ordered to remain quiet for months in a dark room, or become blind.

When she returned to the United States she again suffered a serious sickness. She used the time in a hospital to write letters in support of an American Red Cross organization.

In eighteen eighty-one, Barton's campaign proved successful. The United States Congress signed the World's Treaty of the International Red Cross. This established the American Chapter of the Red Cross. Clara Barton had reached one of her major goals in life.

The next year she successfully urged Congress to accept the Geneva Convention. This treaty set the international rules for treatment of soldiers wounded or captured in war.

For twenty-five years, Clara Barton continued as the president of the American Red Cross. Under her guidance, the organization helped people in all kinds of trouble. She directed the aid efforts for victims of floods in Johnstown, Pennsylvania and Galveston, Texas. She led Red Cross workers in Florida during an outbreak of the disease yellow fever. And she helped during periods when people were starving in Russia and Armenia.

Clara Barton retired when she was in her middle eighties. For her last home, she chose a huge old building near Washington, D.C. The building had been used for keeping Red Cross equipment and then as her office. It was made with material saved from aid centers built after the flood in Johnstown.

In that house on the Potomac River, Clara Barton lived her remaining days. She died after a life of service to others in April, nineteen twelve, at age ninety.

She often said: "You must never so much as think if you like it or not, if it is bearable or not. You must never think of anything except the need --- and how to meet it."

This Special English program was written by Jeri Watson. I'm Ray Freeman.

And I'm Shirley Griffith. Join us again next week for another People in America program on the Voice of America.

Words and Their Stories: Two Heads Are Better Than One

2009-07-27T20:24:00.000-07:00

Now, the VOA Special English program, WORDS AND THEIR STORIES.

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Last week, I told about the number one. Today, I will tell about expressions using other numbers.

Some problems are difficult to solve. But there are a lot of number expressions that can help. For example, if we put two and two together, we might come up with the right answer. We know that two heads are better than one. It is always better to work with another person to solve a problem.

Sometimes there are no two ways about it. Some problems have only one solution. You cannot be of two minds over this.

But with any luck, we could solve the problem in two shakes of a lamb’s tail. We could have our answers quickly and easily.

Sometimes we can kill two birds with one stone. That is, we can complete two goals with only one effort or action. But we must remember that two wrongs don’t make a right. If someone does something bad to you, you should not do the same to him.

If you are going out with your girlfriend, or boyfriend, you do not want another friend to go along on your date. You can just say to your friend: two’s company, three’s a crowd.

When I was a young child in school, I had to learn the three R’s. These important skills are reading, writing and arithmetic. These three words do not all start with the letter “R.” But they have the sound of “R.” My teachers used to give three cheers when I did well in math. They gave praise and approval for a job well done.

Some of my friends were confused and did not understand their schoolwork. They were at sixes and sevens. In fact, they did not care if they finished high school. They saw little difference between the two choices. Six of one, half a dozen the other – that was their position. But they were really happy when they completed their studies and graduated from high school. They were in seventh heaven. They were on cloud nine.

Nine times out of ten, students who do well in school find good jobs. Some work in an office doing the same things every day at nine-to-five jobs. You do not have to dress to the nines, or wear your best clothes, for this kind of work.

Last year, one of my friends applied for a better job at her office. I did not think she would get it. I thought she had a hundred to one shot at the job. Other people at her office thought her chances were a million to one. One reason was that she had been caught catching forty winks at the office. She slept at her desk for short periods during the day. But her supervisor appointed her to the new job at the eleventh hour -- at the very last minute. I guess her lucky number came up.

This VOA Special English program, WORDS AND THEIR STORIES, was written by Jill Moss. I’m Faith Lapidus.

Health Reform Fight Heats Up in Washington

2009-07-24T23:10:00.000-07:00

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This is IN THE NEWS in VOA Special English.

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This week, President Obama continued to push for health reform as debate over his plan intensified. He still wants legislation to sign into law by the end of the year. But he had to give up hope for both houses of Congress to pass bills before their August break.

Nurse Yaima Milian examines a patient at Baptist Health of South Florida in Miami

Health care is one-sixth of the economy. Yet an estimated forty-six million Americans are uninsured. The United States is the only major industrial country that does not guarantee health care for all. The government provides coverage only for old people and the poor.

Most insured workers get their coverage through their jobs. But not all jobs offer insurance. And policies can be costly even when employers share the costs.

One proposal is to offer the choice of a government insurance plan that would compete with private insurers. Another proposal is to require employers with more than twenty-five workers to offer insurance or pay a penalty. Also, insurance companies could no longer deny coverage to people who are already sick.

President Obama wants to expand health coverage to all Americans and, at the same time, control costs. This week he completed six months in office. He held a nationally broadcast news conference Wednesday night that centered on health care. Why the hurry to pass a bill?

BARACK OBAMA: "If we do not control these costs, we will not be able to control our deficit. If we do not reform health care, your premiums and out-of-pocket costs will continue to skyrocket. If we do not act, fourteen thousand Americans will continue to lose their health insurance every single day."

President Obama speaking about health care reform at a meeting in Shaker heights, Ohio

But the president faces resistance over the price of his plan, which could cost a trillion dollars over ten years. Also, opponents say the government might restrict people's health care. The president says the goal is for patients to get the best care, not just the most expensive care.

And he says it can all be done without adding to the federal budget deficit. He says about two-thirds of the cost can be paid for with money that is currently being "wasted," he says, in federal health care programs.

Congress will have to decide how to finance the remaining costs. But the president says he will not let health reform be paid for -- in his words -- "on the backs of middle-class families."

Higher-earning families are another issue. Proposals to raise their taxes to help pay for the plan face objections, and not just from the Republican minority in Congress. Critics include House Democrats newly elected from wealthier communities. And they include the Blue Dogs, a fifteen-year-old coalition of moderate and conservative Democrats in the House of Representatives.

Opinion polls show that the majority of Americans want health reform. Forty-four percent in a USA Today/Gallup Poll released this week approved of Barack Obama's handling of the issue. But fifty percent disapproved.

Also, forty-nine percent disapproved of the president's handling of the economy. That was compared to an approval rate of fifty-five percent in May.

And that's IN THE NEWS in VOA Special English, written by Brianna Blake. I'm Steve Ember.

Researchers Take a Closer Look at Energy Drinks

2009-07-23T23:34:00.000-07:00

This is the VOA Special English Health Report.

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You could fill a store with all the energy drinks now available. They promise to make people feel more energetic and think more clearly. These products have names like Red Bull, Monster, Ripped Force, Speed Stack and 5-Hour Energy. They appeal mainly to young people and are fueled mainly by caffeine.

Chad Reissig at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, is a medical researcher who studies drug dependence. He says the team he works on got interested in studying energy drinks because of the explosion in their popularity in the last few years.

He says the researchers found three major things. One: there are hundreds of brands of energy drinks in most major countries. Two: the drinks are not clearly labeled with enough information. And three: the amount of caffeine varies greatly. Some contain as little as fifty milligrams, others as much as five hundred.

By comparison, a cup of Starbucks brewed coffee contains three hundred thirty milligrams in four hundred seventy-three milliliters.

Some energy drinks contain a mixture of ingredients listed as an "energy blend." Ingredients like taurine, guarana and inositol are natural substances. But Chad Reissig says scientists do not know a lot about them and how they interact with each other and caffeine. And worse, he says, there is no listing of the amount of each ingredient.

Some people combine energy drinks with alcohol. They think they can drink more alcohol that way and not be affected. Studies, however, suggest that they are still under the influence of the alcohol even if they do not feel that way.

Some makers of energy drinks do provide warnings. For example, a popular energy shot warns against use by people who are pregnant, nursing a baby or under the age of twelve. Energy shots are small bottles of liquid. The directions also advise people to limit caffeine products and to drink only half the bottle if they want a moderate amount of energy.

The team at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine published a report in the journal Drug and Alcohol Dependence. They suggested better labeling with the amount of caffeine and other ingredients clearly listed on the drink. The researchers are continuing to study energy drinks. They are currently seeking young people who have had a bad experience after drinking them.

And that's the VOA Special English Health Report, written by Caty Weaver. Transcripts and podcasts of our reports are at voaspecialenglish.com. I'm Steve Ember.

E-Books Hold Next Chapter for Book Industry

2009-07-23T23:23:00.000-07:00

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This is the VOA Special English Economics Report.

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The book industry is trying to get a good read on its future.

These days, instead of turning paper pages, many readers reach for handheld devices. These electronic readers not only store books to show on a screen, they can also read them out loud.

Jeff Bezos, founder and CEO of Amazon.com, holding a Kindle

This month, Amazon lowered the price of its Kindle reader by sixty dollars to just under three hundred dollars. The device can download books wirelessly from a store on Amazon's Web site. Most new releases and bestsellers cost nine dollars and ninety-nine cents. Newspapers, magazines and other services are available for a monthly charge.

Buyers of e-books get a good deal: Traditional hardcover books often cost around twenty-five dollars. But what about book publishers and writers? Their concerns about profits are like the ones voiced as the Internet began to change the music industry. Many e-books are already selling for ninety-nine cents.

Books printed on paper are easily shared and resold by anyone. But e-books can act more like computer software licensed only to the user who buys them.

And some Kindle users got a shock last week. They were surprised to find that copies of two books disappeared from their devices. These were ninety-nine cent versions of George Orwell's "1984" and "Animal Farm."

Bloggers have had fun pointing out that "1984" is largely about censorship -- the suppression of information in a society led by Big Brother. Amazon explained that it did not have the rights to the books, so it erased them and returned the people's money.

This week, Barnes & Noble, the world's largest bookseller, launched what it calls the world's largest e-bookstore. People can read the books on the Apple iPhone and other handheld devices and personal computers. They can also download over half a million books available free from Google. The Internet search company is putting books online that are no longer protected by copyright.

But last October, Google reached a one hundred twenty-five million dollar legal settlement to also make parts of some copyrighted books available. That deal with two groups of writers and publishers has raised competition issues. The Justice Department is now investigating. Also, the European Commission plans hearings in September on how European writers might be affected.

And that's the VOA Special English Economics Report, written by Mario Ritter. Transcripts and podcasts of our reports can be found at voaspecialenglish.com. I'm Steve Ember.